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WEEDS 


AND 


HOW  TO  ERADICATE  THEM 


BY 

THOMAS  SHAW 


Formerly   Professor  of    Agriculture  in    the   Ontario    Agricultural 
College,  Guelph,  Ontario. 


THIRD  EDITION 

(REVISED) 


COPYRIGHT.   1911 

BY 

THE  WEBB   PUBLISHING  CO. 


PREFACE. 

The  aggregate  of  loss  to  the  farmer 
resulting  from  the  extent  to  which  weeds 
prevail  on  the  average  farm  is  very  great. 
It  is  equally  true  that  such  loss  could  in  a 
great  measure  be  prevented.  That  it  is 
not  prevented  is  due  not  so  much  to  indif- 
ference on  the  part  of  the  farmer  as  to 
the  extent  to  which  the  presence  of  weeds 
will  be  tolerated,  as  to  a  lack  of  informa- 
tion  with  reference  to  the  most  eftective 
methods  of  fighting  them.  This  book  has 
been  written  in  the  hope  that  it  will  in 
some  measure  supply  this  need.  In  this, 
the  third  edition,  several  weeds  are  included 
in  the  discussion  that  are  not  considered  in 
the  previous  editions.  Aluch  has  also  been 
added  with  reference  to  efifective  methods 
of  eradication  based  upon  recent  experi- 
mentation. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his 
indebtedness  to  Hon.  Geo.  M<S^*i'^f5^^^ 


Commissioner  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
for  the  use  of  certain  cuts  contained  in 
this  book,  which  are  reproduced  from 
"Farm  Weeds  of  Canada,"  and  to  Profes- 
sor H.  L.  Bolley  of  the  North  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  for  the  ilkistration  of 
spraying  machinery. 

THOMAS  SHAW. 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Feb.  2,  191 1. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE. 

Chapter  I. 
The  Prevalence  of  Weeds   7 

Chapter  II. 
The  Evils  which  Arise  from  the  Presence  of 

Weeds 13 

Chapter  III. 
The  Possibihty  of  Destroying  Weeds 21 

Chapter  IV. 
The  Agencies  Concerned  in  the  Distribution 

and  Propagation  of  Noxious  Weeds..       40 

Chapter  V. 
Methods  and  Principles  Generally  Applicable 

in  the  Destruction  of  Weeds. 58 

Chapter  VI. 
Specific  Modes  of  Eradicating  Weeds  of  the 

Thistle  Family 113 

Chapter  VII. 
Methods  of  Eradicating  Weeds  of  the  Mus- 
tard Family 149 

Chapter  VIII. 
Eradication  of  the  Weedy  Grasses 175 

Chapter  IX. 
Specific  Modes  of  Eradicating  Miscellaneous 

Troublesome  Weeds 196 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  PREVALENCE  OF   WEEDS. 

"Cursed  is  the  ground  for  thy  sake ;  in 
sorrow  shalt  thou  eat  of  it  all  the  days  of 
thy  life;  thorns  also  and  thistles  shall  it 
bring  forth  to  thee ;  and  thou  shalt  eat  the 
herb  of  the  field."  So  reads  the  doom  that 
was  hurled  down  the  centuries  from  the 
gates  of  Eden,  when  man  was  ejected  from 
a  paradise  lost,  to  earn  his  bread  by  the 
sweat  of  his  brow.  From  that  day  to  the 
present  weeds  have  followed  in  the  foot 
prints  of  man.  He  no  sooner  pitches  his 
tent  or  builds  his  more  permanent  home 
than  they  entrench  themselves  around  it. 
He  no  sooner  commences  to  till  the  soil 
than  they  commence  to  dispute  its  posses- 
sion with  the  plants  that  he  sows,  and  thus 
they  harass  and  perplex  him,  and  compli- 
cate all  his  best  devised  methods  for  sub- 
duing the  earth. 

It  is  true  at  the  same  time  that  in  lands 
that  have  never  been  tilled,  we  find  some 


Library 
N.  C,  State  Collej^© 


8  IVccds. 

weeds,  but  they  are  native  to  the  soil,  and 
the  number  of  the  species  is  not  only  lim- 
ited, but  those  which  do  exist  seem  unable 
to  multiply  to  any  great  extent  in  the  natu- 
ral surroundings  amid  which  they  grow. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  lands  that  have  long 
been  cultivated,  we  frequently  find  that  for- 
eign varieties  of  weeds  are  far  more  numer- 
ous and  aggressive  than  the  native  spe- 
cies. Regions  that  have  been  settled  with 
inhabitants  drawn  from  different  countries 
are  peculiarly  liable  to  be  infested  with  the 
weeds  of  the  various  countries  from  which 
these  inhabitants  have  come.  The  seeds  of 
the  weeds  are  imported  along  wnth  the  grain 
that  is  brought  for  sowing,  and  are  intro- 
duced in  various  other  w^ays.  Some  of  the 
varieties  thus  imported  do  not  take  kindly 
to  the  new  conditions,  but  other  sorts,  like 
the  people  who  have  brought  them,  often- 
times find  their  new  surroundings  pre-emi- 
nently favorable  to  a  greatly  increased 
development. 

The  ''prevalence  of  weeds"  depends 
( I )  on  the  number  of  weed  species  found 
in  any  locality;  and  (2)  on  the  extent  to 
which  these  various  species  are  allowed  to 
multiply. 


Prevalence  of  Weeds.  9 

I.  The  number  of  zveed  species.  The 
number  of  the  various  species  of  weeds 
which  infest  the  different  portions  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  provinces  of  Can- 
ada has  not  yet  been  accurately  determined. 
The  story  of  their  distribution  has  not  yet 
been  fully  told,  and  their  number  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  It  would  serve  no  good 
purpose  to  enumerate  the  various  species, 
or  even  to  try  to  give  an  approximation  of 
their  number.  Weeds  are  probably  quite 
as  numerous  and  varied  now  in  America  as 
in  Europe,  where  it  is  well  known  that  they 
have  been  constantly  increasing  in  number 
and  variety  w'ith  every  passing  century.  In 
addition  to  the  noxious  weeds  of  America 
that  are  native  to  the  continent,  the  greater 
portion  of  those  that  have  long  harassed 
the  inhabitants  of  Europe  are  now  giving 
trouble  to  the  inhabitants  of  America. 

Our  most  troublesome  and  aggressive 
weeds  are  foreigners.  The  Canada  thistle, 
which  seems  so  completely  at  home  in  the 
central  provinces  of  the  Dominion  and  the 
northern  portion  of  the  United  States,  was 
imported  from  Europe.  The  same  is  true 
of  some  varieties  of  the  sow  thistle.  The 
wild  oat,  the  ox-eve  daisv,  the  burdock,  the 


lo  Weeds. 

wild  mustard,  the  Russian  thistle,  the 
prickly  lettuce,  the  corn  cockle  and  indeed 
nearly  all  tlie  various  forms  of  weed  life 
that  are  greatly  troublesome  to  us,  come 
from  a  foreign  source.  Foreign  weeds  in 
this  country  are  even  more  numerous  and 
characteristic  than  the  people  who  brought' 
them  hither,  and  so  they  are  likely  to 
remain,  for  weeds,  unlike  nationalities,  do 
not  fuse  and  blend  so  as  to  lose  their  sev- 
eral individualities.  For  some  of  them,  as 
the  Canada  thistle,  the  new  conditions  have 
been  found  so  favorable  that  they  flourish 
to  a  greater  extent  than  even  in  the  lands 
whence  they  came. 

Although  the  presence  of  weed  life  in  any 
form  is  not  desirable,  some  varieties,  as  for 
instance  the  dandelion,  are  not  greatly 
harm;ful,  while  others,  as  the  sow  thistle, 
quack  grass  and  the  Canada  thistle,  if  given 
a  chance,  will  soon  render  the  growing  of 
certain  crops  quite  unprofitable.  A  large 
majority  of  the  weeds  found  in  this  country 
may  be  kept  in  check  by  what  may  be 
termed  good  cultivation,  that  is  to  say,  by 
such  cultivation  as  is  necessary  to  grow 
good  crops ;  but  other  varieties  require  spe- 
cific   modes    of    treatment    if,    when    the 


Prci'alcnce  of  Weeds.  ii 

attempt  is  made  to  exterminate  them,  it  is 
to  prove  successful.  Happily  the  number 
of  varieties  of  weeds  which  are  really  seri- 
ously harmful  to  crops  and  difficult  to  erad- 
icate is  not  very  large.  In  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  subject,  it  would 
not  be  safe  to  name  a  definite  number  which 
w^ould  cover  the  entire  list,  nor  would  it  be 
judicious  to  do  so,  as  new  varieties  are  com- 
ing forward  all  the  time.  Notwithstand- 
ing, it  would  probably  be  not  incorrect  to 
say  that  at  the  present  time  the  varieties  of 
really  noxious  weeds  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  do  not  number  more  than  thirty 
or  forty,  and  it  is  greatly  encouraging  to 
reflect  that  we  seldom  find  more  than  half 
a  dozen  kinds  entrenched  in  any  one  local- 
ity. 

2.  The  extent  to  zvhich  zvceds  have  been 
allozved  to  multiply.  The  extent  to  which 
certain  varieties  of  noxious  weeds  have 
been  allowed  to  multiply  is  simply  alarm- 
ing. Some  of  them  are,  in  a  sense,  taking 
possession  of  the  land.  Notably  is  this  true 
of  wild  mustard,  the  Canada  thistle,  and 
wild  oats  in  the  Red  River  Valley  and  simi- 
lar grain-growing  sections,  of  quack  grass 
in  some  localities,  and  of  wild  barlev  and 


12  Weeds. 

the  Russian  thistle  in  others.  In  some  sec- 
tions the  seeds  of  wild  mustard  are  so 
numerous  in  the  soil  that,  though  no  more 
were  allowed  to  ripen  during  the  present 
generation,  there  would  probably  still  be  a 
few  left  to  grow  plants  for  the  next  genera- 
tion to  destroy.  Other  varieties  than  those 
named  are  increasing  with  alarming  rapid- 
ity. Unless  some  efifective  measures  are 
taken  to  destroy  them,  they  will  increase 
more  and  more,  to  the  great  injury  of  our 
agriculture.  It  is  surely  a  stigma  on  the 
agriculture  of  any  country  and  a  withering 
criticism  on  the  defectiveness  of  the  modes 
of  cultivation  that  are  practiced  in  it,  when 
weeds  increase  rather  than  decrease.  In 
the  hope  of  doing  something  to  stay  the 
progress  of  the  great  tide  of  weed  invasion 
and  weed  aggression,  this  book  has  been 
written.  The  writer  cherishes  the  hope 
that  every  interested  reader  will  exert  him- 
self to  the  utmost  to  stay  the  progress  of 
weed  extension  by  doing  his  best  to  utterly 
annihilate  weeds  in  all  their  seriously  nox- 
ious forms. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  EVILS  WHICH  ARISE  FROM  THE  PRESENCE 
OF  WEEDS. 


The  evils  which  arise  from  the  presence 
of  weeds  are  very  many  and  very  great ;  so 
many  and  so  great  that  it  would  seem  incon- 
ceivable that  any  one  should  be  found  will- 
ing to  offer  an  excuse  for  weeds  on  the 
ground  of  their  utility.  Nevertheless,  we 
sometimes  find  persons  enlarging  on  their 
value  for  fertilizing  purposes,  and  on  their 
utility  in  arresting  the  escape  of  nitrates 
from  the  soil  through  leaching.  It  is  true 
that  weeds  may  sometimes  be  turned  to 
good  account  in  enriching  the  land,  if  they 
are  plowed  under  as  a  green  crop  before 
their  seeds  mature,  but  more  commonly  it 
will  be  found  far  better  to  sow^a  crop  prop- 
erly suited  to  the  purpose,  and  one  that  will 
at  the  same  time  afford  pasture  if  necessary. 
A  green  crop  thus  sown  will  also  hinder  the 


14  Weeds. 

escape  of  nitrates  more  effectively  than  a 
crop  of  weeds,  owing  to  its  greater  uni- 
formity. Whenever  weeds  grow  spontane- 
ously in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  of  much 
service  in  either  of  the  ways  named  above, 
they  are  sure  to  give  trouble  to  whatever 
useful  crop  is  grown  upon  the  same  land, 
much  more  than  will  offset  any  advan- 
tage to  be  gained  from  them. 

In  good  farming  weeds  should  not  be 
tolerated  at  all,  because  ( i )  they  rob  the 
useful,  cultivated  plants  of  their  due  share 
of  plant  food  and  moisture;  (2)  they  also 
injure    them    by    crowding    and    shading; 

(3)  they  harbor  insects  and  plant  diseases; 

(4)  they  add  greatly  to  the  labor  of  clean- 
ing grain  for  market  and  for  seed  ;  ( 5 )  they 
frequently  interfere  with  a  regular  rotation ; 
and  (6)  they  are  usually  not  of  much  value 
as  food.  To  all  these  things  may  be  added 
the  statement  that  the  longer  they  are  left 
to  grow  unchecked,  the  greater  is  the  work 
required  to  completely  subdue  them. 

/.  Weeds  rob  useful  plants  of  their  due 
share  of  plant  food  and  moisture.  Weeds 
feed  upon  precisely  the  same  kinds  of  food 
as  the  useful  plants  among  which  thev 
grow,  and  they  draw  heavily  upon  the  avail- 


Injuries  from  Weeds.  15 

able  soil  moisture.  They  are  often  more 
capable  of  gathering  food  and  moisture 
from  the  soil  than  the  useful  crop,  as  their 
root  systems  are  usually  more  vigorous  and 
penetrate  to  a  greater  depth.  When  found 
growing  in  a  crop,  therefore,  they  deprive 
either  that  crop  or  the  crops  that  come  after 
that  one,  of  precisely  that  amount  of  water 
and  plant  food  which  they  consume  during 
their  period  of  growth.  The  quantity  of 
plant  food  which  weeds  take  from  the  crops 
and  the  soil  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
numbers  in  which  they  are  found.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  plant  food  externally 
applied,  often  at  much  cost,  as  in  the  case 
of  commercial  fertilizers  will  be  utilized  by 
weeds  quite  as  readily  as  the  plant  food  nat- 
urally" available  in  the  soil  itself. 
(y^.  Weeds  injure  useful  plants  by  croivd- 
ing  and  shading  them.  When  useful  plants 
and  weeds  commence  to  grow  at  the  same 
time,  the  weeds  will  nearly  always  leave 
the  useful  plants  behind  in  the  race.  This 
is  owing  to  the  superior  power  of  gathering 
plant  food  which  nearly  all  varieties  of 
weeds  possess.  When  present  in  a  crop, 
they  usually  grow  more  vigorously  than  the 
crop  itself,  and  as  the  latter  is  intended  to 


1 6  Weeds. 

grow  so  thickly  that  it  will  require  all  the 
room  that  can  be  given  it  to  enable  it  to 
perfect  its  growth,  it  follows  that  the  injury 
through  crowding  from  weeds  will  be  in 
proportion  to  the  number  and  vigor  of  the 
weeds.  Weeds  also  grow  more  quickly 
than  useful  plants,  hence  by  their  shade 
they  hinder  that  perfect  development  of  the 
useful  plants  which  abundant  sunlight  is 
necessary  to  secure. 

J.  Weeds  harbor  injurious  inseets  and 
plant  diseases.  Weedy  fence  rows,  waste 
places,  and  stubble  furnish  winter  lodgment 
to'the  chinch  bug  and  various  other  injuri- 
ous insects.  Certain  weeds,  by  their  dense 
growth,  form  an  excellent  harbor  for  plant 
lice.  The  dense  shade  formed  by  a  rank 
growth  of  weeds  furnishes  conditions  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  rust,  mildew, 
and  other  plant  diseases.  Some  of  the  dis- 
eases of  the  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  turnip 
also  occur  on  the  wild  mustard  and  similar 
plants,  and  are  spread  by  them. 

4.  Weeds  add  much  to  the  labor  of  clean- 
ing grain  for  market  and  for  seed.  Were 
it  not  for  the  presence  of  weed  seeds,  it 
would  not  be  necessary  to  spend  much  time 
in  cleaning  grain  intended  for  sale.     It  is 


Injuries  from  Weeds.  ly 

evident  that  grain  entirely  free  from  the 
seeds  of  weeds  always  commands,  even  in 
the  ordinary  market,  a  higher  price  than 
grain  that  is  unclean.  When  grain  con- 
taining weed  seeds  is  put  on  sale  for  sow- 
ing, the  depreciation  in  value  is  much 
greater  relatively.  The  seedsman  cannot 
afford  to  pay  good  prices  for  seed  grain  of 
any  kind  if  he  must  spend  much  time  and 
labor  upon  it  in  removing  the  seeds  of  nox- 
ious weeds.  Oftentimes  it  is  found  impos- 
sible to  completely  separate  weed  seeds  from 
the  grain  in  which  they  ^re  found  by  any 
other  process  than  that '  of  hand-picking. 
With  the  farmer,  in  preparing  a  crop  of 
any  kind  for  market,  this  would  be  simply 
impossible.  All  kinds  of  grain  should  be 
considered  as  unfit  for  seed,  however,  so 
long  as  any  seeds  of  noxious  weeds  are 
found  in  it. 

The  difficulty  in  removing  the  seeds  of 
weeds  from  those  of  grasses  and  clovers  is 
much  greater  than  in  removing  them  from 
the  small  grains,  owing  to  the  greater  rela- 
tive uniformity  in  the  size  of  the  weed  seeds 
and  the  seeds  of  the  grasses.  The  labor  of 
the  cleaning  process,  therefore,  is  also  rel- 
atively greater,  and  in  very  many  instances 


i8  Weeds. 

the  cleaning  cannot  be  accomplished  by  any 
process.  The  only  possible  way  of  prevent- 
ing the  presence  of  the  seeds  of  certain  nox- 
ious weeds  in  many  kinds  of  seed  grains, 
clovers,  and  grasses,  is  to  prevent  them 
from  ripening  in  the  crops  which  produce 
thes'S  seeds. 

5.  IVeeds  frequently  interfere  ivith  a  reg- 
ular rotation.  Ordinarily,  farming  cannot 
be  carried  on  successfully  without  a  regu- 
lar rotation.  This  fact  is  admitted  on  every 
hand  by  the  most  succ^«sful  agriculturists. 
The  nature  of  the  rotation  will  depend  upon 
such  considerations  as  relate  to  the  capabil- 
ities and  requirements  of  the  soil,  the  mar- 
kets, and  the  facilities  for  ol)taining  supplies 
of  plant  food,  ^^^he  fertility  of  the  soil  can 
always  be  sustained  in  more  even  balance 
when  a  suitable  rotation  is  practiced.  When 
weeds  become  numerous  in  any  of  the  crops 
of  a  rotation,  they  greatly  hinder  the  prof- 
itable growth  of  these  crops.''/  In  some 
instances,  this  hindrance  may  be  so  great 
as  to  render  the  growth  of  the  crops  of  the 
regular  rotation  quite  unprofitable  until 
prompt  measures  have  been  taken  to  remove 
the   weeds.     The  adoption  of  these   meas- 


lujuncs  from  U'ccds.  19 

ures  may  necessitate  the  growing  of  such 
crops  for  a  time  as  may  not  be  desired. 

6.  Weeds  are  usually  not  of  much  value 
for  food.  If  weeds  were  of  much  value  as 
food  either  for  man  or  beast,  there  would 
not  be  the  same  necessity  for  waging 
against  them  a  war  of  extermination,  but 
usually  they  are  of  no  value.  When  live 
stock  feed  upon  them^  it  is  generally 
because  of  short  supplies  of  their  proper 
food,  unless  it  be  when  the  weeds  are  very 
young.  Nearly  all  forms  of  weed  life  are 
possessed  of  acrid  or  bitter  juices  which 
render  them  distasteful  to  live  stock,  and 
many  of  them  become  so  woody  at  a  com- 
paratively early  stage  of  their  growth  that 
they  are  in  consequence  left  undisturbed. 
Quack  grass,  it  is  true,  forms  an  exception, 
but  quack  grass  is  not  more  valuable  than 
many  other  kinds  of  grass,  and  when  we 
consider  the  difficulty  found  in  eradicating 
it,  we  cannot  regard  it  in  any  other  light 
than  that  of  a  most  troublesome  weed.  The 
value  of  weeds  for  food  is  so  trifling,  com- 
pared with  the  mischief  which  arises  from 
their  prevalence,  that  we  ought  never  to 
sow  them  or  tolerate  their  presence  for  such 
a  use. 


20  Weeds. 

Finally,  the  longer  weeds  are  left  to  grozv 
uneheeked,  the  greater  is  the  labor  required 
to  eoinpletely  subdue  them.  Were  it  not 
for  the  presence  of  weeds,  the  art  of  tilhng 
the  soil  would  be  very  much  simplified. 
They  are  more  or  less  responsible  for  the 
introduction  of  the  bare  fallow,  which  is 
not  only  costly  in  respect  of  time,  but  also 
involves  much  labor.  Once  get  the  mas- 
tery of  the  more  noxious  forms  of  weed 
life,  and  the  bare  fallow  is  no  longer  an 
absolute  necessity  on  any  farm,  except  pos- 
sibly for  the  conservation  of  moisture  in 
the  semi-arid  districts.  Weeds  also  add 
greatly  to  the  cost  of  growing  crops  which 
require  cultivation,  such  as  corn  and  roots, 
as  those  engaged  in  raising  these  crops 
know  very  well.  It  would  be  impossible 
even  to  approximate  to  the  cost  of  labor 
expended  annually  in  the  destruction  of 
weeds,  but  it  is  a  very  large  sum,  and  one 
that  in  many  portions  of  this  continent  is 
continually  increasing,  since  the  cost  of  sub- 
duing weeds  must  always  increase  as  the 
weeds  themselves  increase  in  number. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE    POSSIBILITY    OF    DESTROYING    WEEDS. 

The  prevalence  of  noxious  weeds  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  is  simply  alarm- 
ing. They  abound  on  every  hand.  In 
many  sections,  in  one  form  or  another,  they 
flourish  in  every  field  and  luxuriate  in  every 
crop.  Gardens,  which  above  all  places  on 
the  farm  should  be  clean,  are  literally  over- 
run with  them.  They  occupy  the  sides  of 
nearly  every  road  throughout  the  whole 
continent.  To  so  great  an  extent  do  they 
prevail  everywhere  that  they  form  one  great 
dark  blot  upon  the  boasted  progress  of  the 
twentieth  century,  and  are  a  reproach  upon 
its  civilization. 

The  extent  to  which  weeds  prevail  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  this  continent  would 
lead  one  to  suppose  that  the  farmers  had 
abandoned  all  efforts  to  destroy  them,  and 
were   content  to  gather   from  their  fields, 


22  Weeds. 

in  the  form  of  crops,  merely  what  the  weeds 
allowed  to  grow  there.  This  apathy  seems 
to  arise,  in  part  at  least,  from  a  lack  of 
belief  in  the  possibility  of  destroying  weeds 
without  incurring  so  much  labor  and 
expense  as  to  make  the  work  unprofitable. 
As  the  matter  presents  itself  to  the  writer, 
there  is  not  a  shadow  of  a  hope  that  the 
weeds  of  this  continent  will  ever  be 
destroyed  by  the  farmers,  so  long  as  their 
complete  eradication  is  looked  upon  as 
impossible,  or  so  long  as  the  belief  is  har- 
bored that  the  outlay  of  labor  and  expense 
in  completely  eradicating  them  will  not  be 
repaid  by  the  greater  gains  that  will  be 
obtained  when  once  their  destruction  is 
effected. 

Four  propositions  are  now  submitted 
which  bear  upon  the  subject  of  the  com- 
plete eradication  of  weeds.  So  confident 
is  the  writer  of  the  soundness  of  these  prop- 
ositions that  he  makes  them  as  strongly 
affirmative  as  possible.  They  are  as  follows : 

(i)  The  noxious  forms  of  w^eed  life  can 
be  completely  eradicated  on  every  farm 
throughout  the  whole  continent  if  the  farm- 
ers  of  these  farms  resolve  that  it  shall  be 
done. 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.       23 

(2)  Complete  eradication  can  be  effected 
without  heavy  outlay,  if  the  work  be  done 
in  the  proper  way. 

(3)  When  weeds  are  once  under  control, 
it  will  be  easily  possible,  with  but  little  out- 
lay, to  keep  them  so. 

(4)  The  profits  of  farming  will  be,  rela- 
tively, much  larger  where  farms  are  kept 
entirely  free   from  noxious  weeds. 

The  writer  is  by  no  means  unconscious  of 
the  fact  that  these  propositions  will  be 
received  doubtfully  by  some  who  read  them, 
but  he  finds  comfort  in  the  reflection  that 
they  will  be  distasteful  to  no  one  whose 
heart  is  really  set  upon  the  complete  eradi- 
cation of  the  noxious  weeds  that  may  exist 
on  his  own  farm,. 

I.  The  noxious  forms  of  zveed  life  can  he 
completely  eradicated  on  every  farm.  By 
the  assertion  that  the  more  troublesome 
forms  of  weed  life  can  be  completely  erad- 
icated, it  is  meant  that  they  can  be  so  effec- 
tually exterminated  that  they  will  practi- 
cally cease  to  interfere  with  any  rotation 
that  may  be  desired.  It  even  implies  that 
they  can  be  completely  banished  from  every 
farm  where  the  attempt  is  made,  except  as 
their  seeds  are  brought  back  again  by  natu- 


24  Weeds. 

ral  or  other  agencies,   and   that    with  the 
necessary    watch fuhiess,   the   plants   which 
grow  from  these  can  in  turn  be  destroyed 
with   but   Httle   difficuhy.       Many   persons 
seem  to  hold  the  view  that  while  weeds  may 
be  held  in  check  and  kept  from  seriously 
hindering  the  growth  of  crops,  they  cannot 
be  wholly  destroyed.   They  claim  that  while 
weeds  may  be  thus  far  conquered,  never- 
theless they  will  come  again,  and  therefore 
that   the    hope   of  eradicating   them    com- 
pletely is  not  to  be  cherished.     Those  who 
hold  this  view  shape  their  practice  accord- 
ingly.    They  adopt  some  method  of  clean- 
ing a  field  that  proves  fairly  successful,  and 
then  during  the  years. that  immediately  fol- 
low give  the  same  field  no  further  special 
attention.       The  consequence   is   that   this 
field  soon  again  requires  to  be  put  through 
some    special    cleaning   process,   owing   to 
the    increase    of    the    weeds    which    were 
but     partially     eradicated     by     the     pre- 
vious one.     If  this  practice  were  a  good 
one,  it  would  involve  the  correctness  of  the 
untenable   theory  that   in   correcting  error 
and  uprooting  evil,  it  is  better  to  do  it  par- 
tially rather  than  wholly.     So  long  as  the 
belief  is  cherished  by  those  who  are  most 
interested,  that  the  complete  eradication  of 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.      25 

noxious  weeds  is  impossible,  so  long  will 
weeds  continue  to  prevail.  To  so  great  an 
extent  is  this  belief  indulged  in  that  it 
would  probably  be  found  a  greater  task  to 
correct  it  in  the  minds  of  many  farmers 
than  to  uproot  the  weeds  themselves  from 
their  fields. 

To  banish  weeds  completely  from  any 
farm  will  not  only  require  the  wise  and  dil- 
igent use  of  measures  of  a  certain  charac- 
ter, which  will  be  described  in  succeeding 
chapters,  but  when  once  they  are  gone,  it 
will  also  require  the  most  persistent  watch- 
fulness to  keep  them  away.  With  public 
sentiment  on  this  subject  as  it  is  at  present, 
it  will  be  found  impossible  to  get  those  who 
are  most  directly  interested  to  act  in  con- 
cert in  destroying  weeds,  hence  the  work  of 
even  materially  reducing  their  numbers  will 
necessarily  be  slow.  The  work  of  banish- 
ing weeds  from  any  country  would  not  of 
necessity  extend  over  many  years  if  all  the 
farmers  of  the  country  would  but  act 
together.  The  spectacle  would  then  be  wit- 
nessed for  the  first  time  of  an  inhabited 
country  without  noxious  weeds  to  harass 
and  annoy  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  Because 
farmers  cannot  all  be  persuaded  to  put  forth 


26  Weeds. 

the  efifort  to  banish  weeds  from  their  prem- 
ises, no  one  engaged  in  agriculture  should 
refrain  from  doing  all  that  he  possibly  can 
to  bring  about  this  result.  Though  our 
neighbors  should  not  now  believe  in  the 
possibility  of  being  able  to  banish  noxious 
weeds  from  their  farms,  if  our  own  farms 
are  made  clean  and  kept  clean,  the  evidence 
thus  presented  will  in  time  have  its  due 
measure  of  influence. 

2,  The  complete  eradication  of  noxious 
weeds  can  be  effected  zvithoitt  heavy  outlay 
if  the  zvork  be  done  in  a  proper  way.  To 
argue  the  truth  of  this  proposition  in  an 
abstract,  theoretical  fashion  would  be  to 
spend  time  to  but  little  purpose.  It  would 
not  succeed  in  winning  many  converts  to 
the  truth.  Those  who  cherish  the  belief  in 
reference  to  weeds  that  "the  thing  that 
hath  been  is  that  which  shall  be"  cannot  be 
reached  by  any  such  line  of  reasoning.  The 
evidence  of  actual  accomplishment  is  the 
only  testimony  which  they  will  not  be 
inclined  to  reject.  Evidence  of  this  kind 
is  not  very  plentiful,  as  our  farmer  readers 
must  know  very  well.  Therefore,  because 
of  the  lack  of  the  necessary  data  from  other 
sources  bearing  upon  the  cost  of  cleaning 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.      27 

farms  from  weeds,  the  writer  must  fall 
back  upon  his  own  experience,  and  use  as 
evidence  the  work  that  was  accomplished  at 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion at  Guelph  from  the  time  it  came  under 
his  supervision  in  the  autumn  of  1888. 

At  that  time  the  farm  was  not  in  a  clean 
condition.  The  Canada  thistle  prevailed  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  over  the  whole  of 
it.  In  some  of  the  fields  the  spring  grain 
crops  were  so  infested  with  this  pest  that 
they  had  to  be  cut  in  the  green  stage  to  pre- 
vent the  maturing  of  thistles  in  countless 
numbers.  In  several  of  the  fields,  ox-eye 
daisies  spangled  meadows  and  pastures 
with  a  glory  all  their  own.  The  yellow 
blossoms  of  the  wild  mustard  lent  variety  to 
the  foliage  of  every  fields  and  in  some  fields 
their  beauty  was  painfully  profuse.  Bur- 
docks revelled  among  the  stones  that  were 
strewn  along  the  numerous  fence  borders. 
Wheat-thief  and  false  flax  were  plentifully 
sprinkled  in  some  localities,  while  in  others 
the  sow  thistle  had  ol^tained  a  firm  and  men- 
acing footing.  Quack  grass  had  monopo- 
lized more  than  one  field.  Ragweed  was 
plentifully  strewn  over  one  or  two  fields. 
Bindweed   had   taken   possession   of    small 


28  Weeds. 

areas  here  and  there,  and  blueweed  had 
nxed  its  firm  grip  on  some  of  the  pastures. 
Here,  then,  was  a  capital  opportunity  for 
experiment  in  the  eradication  of  noxious 
weeds. 

It  would  not  be  correct  to  say  that  any 
one  of  these  varieties  of  weed  life  was  com- 
pletely eradicated  in  the  five  years  from 
that  time  till  this  little  book  was  first 
written.  A  few  stragglers  still  survived 
from  year  to  year,  but  these,  in  nearly  all 
instances,  came  from  the  seeds  which  were 
in  the  soil  ready  to  spring  into  vigor- 
ous existence  when  favorable  conditions 
occurred  for  them.  It  may  be  said  in  all 
fairness,  however,  that  none  of  these  vari- 
ous forms  of  weed  life  were  present  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  cause  serious  annoyance 
to  cultivation  or  real  injury  to  the  crops. 

To  estimate  with  absolute  precision  the 
cost  of  bringing  this  Station  Farm  into  the 
condition  of  cleanliness  indicated  would 
probably  be  an  impossible  task,  owing  to 
the  many  complications  that  arise  in  fixing 
the  proportion  of  the  outlay  that  should  be 
charged  to  the  growing  of  the  crops  and 
to  the  eradication  of  the  weeds  respectively. 
The   utmost  that  can  be  hoped   for  is  an 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.     2C^ 

approximation  to  the  real  cost.  Such  an 
approximate  estimate  was  made  and  pub- 
hshed  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  and  Experimental 
Farm  for  1891,  pp.  51  and  52.  No  better 
course,  probably,  can  be  adopted  here  than 
to  make  a  quotation  from  the  Farm  Depart- 
ment portion  of  this  report,  prepared  by  the 
writer.  The  subject  in  hand  is  therein  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  language : 

''The  question  of  the  cost  of  cleaning  this 
farm  will  doubtless  be  raised  by  the  enquir- 
ing mind,  and  it  is  well  that  it  should  be. 
In  reference  to  this,  I  desire  to  say  that  I 
am  satisfied  that  the  only  outlay  for  which 
there  was  no  direct  return  was  that  paid 
for  hand  spudding.  The  hoed  crops  would 
certainly  all  pay  for  the  cost  of  producing 
them.  On  much  of  the  land,  two  crops 
were  grown  each  year  during  the  cleaning 
process.  On  the  land  gang-plowed  after 
harvest,  compensation  for  the  outlay  was 
frequently  obtained  in  the  catch  crops 
grown.  I  regret  that  no  account  was  kept 
of  the  exact  amount  expended  for  hand 
spudding  in  1889.  In  1890  the  time  spent 
in  spudding  was  4983/^  hours  by  one  per- 
son, which,  at  $1.25  per  day  of  ten  hours, 


30  IVccds. 

would  amount  to  $62,313/2.  In  1891  the 
time  thus  spent  upon  the  farm  amounted 
to  489  hours,  which  would  cost  $6i.i2j/2. 
For  the  two  years,  then,  the  outlay  for 
spudding  was  $123.44.  This  does  not 
include  spudding  on  the  road.  On  the 
supposition  that  as  much  was  expended  in 
spudding  in  the  year  1889  ^s  in  the  two  fol- 
lowing years,  and  this  estimate  is  certainly 
a  liberal  one,  the  whole  outlay  for  spudding 
in  the  three  years  would  not  be  more  than 
$250.00.  Now,  suppose  the  400  acres,  or 
thereabouts,  of  arable  and  pasture  land  on 
this  farm  had  been  cleaned  by  the  process 
of  the  bare  fallow  during  these  three  years, 
that  is  to  say,  one-third  of  it  each  year,  the 
cost  of  hired  labor  of  man  and  team,  with 
rental  of  land  added,  in  the  al)sence  of  crop, 
would  have  been  from  $3,200  to  $4,000. 
This  calculation  is  based  on  the  assumption 
that  the  cost  of  the  bare  fallow,  when  all 
the  labor  is  hired  and  the  rental  of  the  land 
included,  would  be  fully  $8.00  to  $10.00  per 
acre." 

When  the  work  of  the  bare  fallow  is 
done  by  the  farmer,  it  will  not,  of  course, 
be  nearly  so  costly  to  the  person  doing  it  as 
when  the  labor  of  man  and  team  is  hired; 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.     31 

but  in  whatever  way  it  may  be  done,  it  will 
cost  several  times  more  per  acre  than  the 
sum  actually  paid  per  acre  for  spudding 
during  the  three  years  in  which  the  Onta- 
rio Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at 
Guelph  was  being  freed  from  weeds. 

J.  IV hen  noxious  zveeds  are  once  eradi- 
cated, it  zvili  be  easily  possible,  zvith  but 
little  outlay,  to  keep,  them  in  check.  This 
proposition  is  so  reasonable  that  it  should 
scarcely  require  any  argument  to  demon- 
strate its  correctness.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
one  which  runs  strangely  counter  to  popu- 
lar opinion.  We  find  many  ready  to  say 
that  the  task  is  a  hopeless  one,  that  weeds 
will  continue  to  come  through  all  time,  and 
that  to  keep  them  completely  under  control 
will  be  found  a  process  costly  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  benefits  accruing.  That 
noxious  weeds,  even  when  once  eradicated, 
will  come  again  is  certainly  true,  and  that 
they  will  keep  coming  is  equally  true,  but 
that  it  will  cost  more  to  keep  them  wholly 
banished  than  only  partially  banished  is 
altogether  illogical. 

Such  reasoning  would  involve  the  unten- 
able assumption  that  when  weeds  are  plen- 
tiful they  are  relatively  easier  to  fight  than 


Z2  Weeds. 

when  they  are  few,  and  that  while  it  would 
be  a  wise  and  commendable  course  to 
reduce  the  number  of  weeds  on  a  farm, 
there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  further  reduc- 
tion ought  not  to  go. 

If  a  farm  that  is  very  dirty  can  be  made 
partially  clean  with  advantage  to  the 
farmer,  it  seems  reasonable  to  think  that 
to  go  a  step  farther  and  to  render  it  alto- 
gether clean  would  be  a  still  greater  advan- 
tage, and  that  if  a  farm  can  be  partially 
cleaned  and  yield  profit  to  the  owner,  this 
profit  will  not  only  be  correspondingly 
greater  if  the  farm  be  perfectly  cleaned, 
but  that  the  labor  and  cost  of  maintaining 
cleanliness  will  continually  decrease  with 
the  increasing  perfection  of  the  cleanliness. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  that  the  term 
"clean,"  as  applied  to  freedom  from  the 
presence  of  noxious  weeds  on  farms,  is 
necessarily  used  in  this  work  in  a  relative 
sense.  So  long  as  weed  seeds  are  carried 
from  place  to  place  by  means  of  such  agen- 
cies as  birds,  waters,  and  winds,  we  shall 
never  be  able  to  say  that  a  farm  is  abso- 
lutely clean.  Though  one  year  it  were  to 
be  made  perfectly  free  from  noxious  weeds, 
the    following   year    a    number    of    weeds 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.      ^^ 

would  probably  grow  from  seeds  brought 
by  some  one  or  other  of  the  various  agen- 
cies concerned  in  weed  distribution.  When, 
therefore,  a  farm  is  spoken  of  as  clean  in 
this  work,  it  is  meant  ( i )  that  it  is  so  free 
from  noxious  weeds  that  they  do  practi- 
cally no  injury  to  the  crops  that  may  be 
grown  upon  it;  and  (2)  that  such -weeds  as 
are  found  upon  it  are  so  few  in  number 
.  that  one  can  remove  by  hand  or  with  the 
spud,  in  one  day  of  ten  working  hours,  all 
of  them  found  growing  in  any  ten  acres  of 
the  farm.  Such  a  definition  may  seem  arbi- 
trary, but  since  absolute  freedom  from  nox- 
ious weeds  is  not,  at  any  rate  for  the  pres- 
ent, to  be  looked  for,  some  definition  seemed 
necessary  to  prevent  misconception.  A  def- 
inition was  chosen,  therefore,  within  rea- 
sonable reach  of  attainment,  and  such  as 
would  serve  all  practical  purposes.  The 
mode  of  securing  and  maintaining  the 
above-defined  degree  of  cleanliness  will  be 
described  in  subsequent  chapters. 

To  show  that  the  work  of  maintaining 
cleanliness  is  not  necessarily  expensive,  it 
will  be  sufiicient  to  quote  again  from  the 
Report  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 


^34  Weeds. 

and  Experimental  Farm  for  1891.  On 
page  52,  the  following  statements  are  made : 
"It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  venture  two 
or  three  remarks  that  are  general  in  their 
nature  in  reference  to  cleaning  farms.  I 
desire  to  say,  fi^rst,  that  it  is  my  firm  con- 
viction that  the  farmers  of  this  province 
may  have  clean  farms  if  they  so  desire  it; 
second,  that  farms  may  be  cleaned  without 
great  outlay,  and  ordinarily  without  resort- 
ing to  the  bare  fallow  ;  and,  third,  that  when 
farms  are  thus  cleaned  the  work  of  keeping 
them  clean  will  not  be  difficult,  providing 
due  vigilance  is  exercised.  When  a  field 
is  cleaned,  it  can  easily  be  kept  clean  by  the 
use  of  the  spud  and  autumn  cultivation,  in 
addition  to  the  cultivation  necessary  to  the 
production  of  the  crops  grown.  When 
thus  cleaned,  the  hand  spudding,  essential 
in  keeping  fields  clean  of  weeds,  should  not 
be  more  than  $25.00  per  year  for  100  acres. 
We  expect  to  keep  this  farm  clean  hence- 
forth at  an  outlay  of  not  more  than  $75.00 
per  annum,  over  and  above  the  ordinary 
outlay  required  in  good  cultivation.  This 
estimate  includes  private  roads,  fence  bor- 
ders, unbroken  pastures,  and  by-places." 


Possibility  of  Destroying   Weeds.     35 

Some  of  the  statements  in  the  quotation 
just  given  may  appear  extravagant,  even 
to  practical  men.  The  idea  of  bringing 
farms  into  a  clean  condition  and  then  keep- 
ing them  so  seems  to  be  entertained  by  so 
small  a  number  that  those  who  advocate 
such  views  will  be  looked  upon  by  many  as 
enthusiasts.  The  writer  feels  free  to  say, 
however,  that  this  opinion  is  not  the  view 
of  a  mere  enthusiast,  and  no  man  should 
regard  it  as  such  until  he  has  first  honestly 
made  the  attempt  to  clean  his  own  farm  on 
the  lines  laid  down  in  this  book,  and  found 
that  he  cannot  profitably  do  so.  This  opin- 
ion, it  may  be  added,  is  sustained  by  the 
experience  of  1892  in  the  management  of 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion at  Guelph.  An  accurate  account  was 
kept  of  the  time  spent  in  hand  spudding 
that  year.  It  amounted  to  512  hours, 
which,  at  $1.25  per  day  of  ten  hours,  cost, 
but  $64.00,  a  sum  considerably  less  than 
$25.00  per  100  acres.  And  this  cost  includes 
the  entire  work  done  in  the  way  indicated 
on  ''private  roads,  fence  borders,  unbroken 
pastures,  and  by-places,"  in  addition  to  that 
expended   on  the  cultivable   portions. 


36  Weeds, 

4.  The  profits  of  farming  zvill  be  rela- 
tively much  larger  zvhere  farms  arc  kept 
entirely  free  from  noxious  zvecds.  The 
correctness  of  the  proposition  here  made 
will  surely  be  apparent  to  the  reflective 
mind,  but  if  proof  is  wanted,  it  is  easily 
found. 

Since  weeds  feed  upon  identically  the 
same  food  as  useful  plants,  it  follows  that, 
where  the  former  take  up  a  portion  of  the 
plant  food  there  will  be  just  that  much  less 
for  the  crops  in  which  the  weeds  grow. 
Where  weeds  are  more  numerous  in  a  crop 
than  the  plants  of  the  crop,  much  more  of 
plant  food  is  used  by  the  weeds  than  by  the 
crop,  for  weeds  are  more  ravenous  feeders 
tban  useful  plants.  Moreover,  through  the 
crozvding  and  sJiadiug  by  weeds  of  the  crop 
plants,  crops  are  very  much  injured,  as  was 
stated  in  a  previous  chapter.  Here,  too, 
the  injury  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber and  strength  of  the  weeds,  and  crop- 
yields  will  be  correspondingly  diminished. 
The  view  has  been  advocated  that  some- 
times noxious  weeds  should  not  be  cut  down 
in  pastures,  for  the  reason  that  they  encour- 
age the  growth  of  grasses,  inasmuch  as 
they  furnish   shade   to  them.     This   would 


Possibility   of  Destroying   Weeds.     37 

be  equivalent  to  saying  that  grasses  robbed 
of  nutriment  by  overshadowing  weeds,  and 
grown  in  the  absence  of  sunHght,  would  be 
more  abundant  and  nutritious  than  grasses 
occupying  the  ground  alone.  Such  argu- 
ment should  be  consigned  to  a  deeper  shade 
than  the  rankest  weeds  can  possibly  furnish. 
Again,  weeds  growing  in  crops  increase 
the  labor  of  handling  the  crops,  and  to  no 
useful  purpose.  Here,  too,  the  increase  in 
labor  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  weeds  are  present,  and  with  all 
increase  in  labor  that  is  not  followed  by  a 
corresponding  return,  there  must  be  a 
decrease  in  the  profits.  Weeds  increase  the 
labor  of  harvesting  the  crops  amid  which 
they  grow,  whether  these  are  cereal  or  cul- 
tivated crops.  Grain  crops  are  much  more 
difficult  to  reap  where  weeds  abound,  since 
the  latter  are  more  branching  in  their  hab- 
its of  growth  than  cereal  plants,  are  more 
woody  in  fibre,  and  are  of  greater  height 
proportionately — the  latter  characteristic 
resulting  from  a  tendency  to  a  more  pro- 
longed state  of  greenness  in  some  portions 
of  the  plants.  Cultivated  crops  are  much 
more  difficult  to  harvest  w^here  weeds 
abound,  since  weeds  frequently  hinder  free- 


38  Weeds, 

dom  of  locomotion  on  the  part  of  the  work- 
men, impede  the  working  of  the  implements 
used,  and  increase  the  difficulty  of  hand- 
ling the  crop.  Moreover,  weeds  materially 
increase  the  difficulty  of  curing  both  cereal 
and  grass  crops  by  prolonging  the  curing 
period,  and  in  proportion  as  this  period  is 
prolonged,  the  liability  to  loss  from  adverse 
weather  is   increased. 

When  weeds  become  so  numerous  as  to 
disturb  the  regular  rotation,  they  necessa- 
rily interfere  with  the  profits  that  would 
otherwise  accrue.  A  disturbed  rotation 
generally  leads  to  the  growing  of  some  crop 
that  is  less  desirable  than  that  usually 
grown.  This,  in  turn,  may  lead  to  dis- 
turbed market  relations,  a  greater  necessity 
for  the  purchase  of  artificial  fertilizers,  and 
even  of  certain  farm  foods  that  may  be 
wanted,  and  to  various  other  evils,  some  of 
which  have  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  II. 

The  labor  required  in  cleaning  the  ground 
from  weeds  increases  with  the  increase  of 
the  weeds,  and  the  farm  profits  are  there- 
fore to  that  extent  reduced.  More  partic- 
ularly is  this  the  case  in  growing  cultivated 
crops.  With  the  multiplication  of  weeds 
hand  labor  especially  is  increased,  because 


Possibility  of  Destroying  Weeds.     39 

more  labor  is  required  to  remove  weeds 
from  the  line  of  the  rows,  and  the  hand 
labor  thus  employed  is  always  relatively 
more  expensive  than  horse  labor.  Because 
of  this,  the  untenable  conclusion  has  been 
reached  by  some  that  in  America  it  will 
not  pay  to  grow  croi)S  which  require  hand 
labor  to  keep  them  clean.  The  labor  of 
cleaning  by  other  modes,  such  as  the  bare 
fallow,  is  also  increased  as  weeds  multiply, 
and  this  increase  of  labor  not  only  results 
from  the  greater  frequency  with  which  the 
bare  fallow  would  have  to  be  resorted  to  by 
those  who  practice  it,  but  also  from  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  bare  fallow 
would  have  to  be  managed  to  make  it  effec- 
ti've  when  weeds  are  plentiful,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  loss  that  is  occasioned  by  the 
greater  frequency  of  the  seasons  when 
crops  can  not  be  growm  because  of  the  land 
lying  idle  in  bare  fallow. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE    AGENCIES    CONCERNED    IN    THE    DISTRI- 
BUTION   AND   PROPAGATION   OF   NOXIOUS 
WEEDS. 


The  means  or  agencies  concerned  in  the 
distribution  and  propagation  of  noxious 
weeds  are  chiefly  the  following:  seed  grain, 
grass  seed,  clover  seed,  etc. ;  farm  live 
stock ;  purchased  feed  stuffs ;  farmyard 
manures ;  packing-cases,  crates,  etc.,  that 
have  been  used  for  the  carriage  of  goods ; 
road  and  farm  vehicles,  etc. ;  implements  of 
tillage ;  thrashing  machines  ;  railways ;  birds  ; 
wild  animals  ;  waters  ;  winds ;  and  the  inher- 
ent powers  of  the  weeds  themselves.  Some 
of  these  means  or  agencies  are  entirely 
under  the  farmer's  control,  as  the  last  men- 
tioned ;  some  of  them  are  but  partially  under 
his  control — that  is,  as  far  as  weed  distri- 
bution is  concerned — as  the  vehicles  that 
pass  along  his  roads  or  are  used  upon  his 


Distribution  and  Propagation.        41 

farm ;  and  some  are  entirely  beyond  his 
control,  as  waters  and  winds.  These  vari- 
ous means  or  agencies  will  now  be  consid- 
ered in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been 
mentioned. 

I,  Seed  grain,  grass  seed,  clover  seed, 
etc.  By  no  other  agency,  perhaps,  are 
weeds  so  widely  and  so  generally  distributed 
as  by  the  grain  seed,  grass  seed,  and  clover 
seed  used  by  the  farmer,  more  especially 
the  two  latter.  Carrying  facilities  are  now 
so  complete  that  seed  intended  for  sowing 
can  be  brought  from  great  distances  to  be 
sold  in  any  market  where  there  is  a  demand 
for  it.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  less 
bulky  and  lighter  sorts  of  seeds.  Owing 
to  the  ready  means  which  are  thus  afforded 
for  obtaining  supplies  of  these  seeds,  there 
is  a  tendency  in  those  districts  where  fair 
yields  are  not  commonly  obtained  to  pur- 
chase them  from  distant  parts  rather  than 
to  raise  them  at  home.  The  demand  thus 
sustained  encourages  the  growth  of  the 
various  sorts  of  seeds  in  those  centers  that 
are  found  most  suitable  for  them.  Unfor- 
tunately, those  centers  which  are  generally 
possessed  of  unusual  fertility  oftentimes 
produce  the  seeds  of  hurtful   weeds  quite 


42  IVeeds. 

as  freely  as  those  of  the  useful  clovers, 
grasses,  and  grains;  and  owing,  in  very 
many  instances,  to  their  similarity  in  size 
to  the  useful  seeds  in  which  they  are  found 
(especially  in  grass  or  clover  seeds),  it  is 
almost  impossible,  by  any  process  of  clean- 
ing that  may  be  adopted,  to  separate  the 
seeds  of  weeds  from  the  useful  seeds  which 
are  intended  for  sowing.  The  distribution, 
therefore,  of  these  weed  seeds  is  as  wide  as 
that  of  the  useful  seeds  in  which  they  are 
found,  and,  it  may  be  added,  is  as  continu- 
ous. The  seeds  of  millets  are  also  a  fruit- 
ful agency  for  the  dissemination  of  weed 
seeds,  though  not  perhaps  to  the  same 
extent  as  are  seeds  that  are  smaller. 

Renewing  the  stock  of  small  grains  by 
the  purchase  of  new  seed,  or  by  the 
exchange  for  seed  grown  by  others,  is  a 
common  practice  among  farmers,  and  it  has 
many  things  to  commend  it ;  but  along  with 
the  new  seed  there  too  frequently  comes  an 
influx  of  the  seeds  of  the  most  troublesome 
weeds.  Although  this  is  a  less  fruitful 
source  of  weed-seed  dissemination  than  that 
which  has  just  been  spoken  of,  it  furnishes 
the  explanation  of  the  arrival  upon  our 
farms  of  manv  forms  of  weeds,  the  pres- 


Distribution  and  Propagation.        43 

ence  of  which  we  could  not  otherwise 
account  for. 

Moreover,  farmers  sometimes  test  by 
local  trial  the  suitability  of  the  various  sorts 
of  farm  seeds  that  are  to  be  obtained  in 
foreign  countries.  This  work  has  its  dan- 
gers as  well  as  its  benefits.  In  the  old 
world,  as  in  the  new,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  buy  seed  in  the  open  market  entirely 
free  from  the  seeds  of  foul  weeds.  When 
foreign  seeds  are  distributed  through  the 
medium  of  our  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions, a  considerable  degree  of  assurance  is 
furnished  the  farmer  that  he  w^ill  get  pure 
seed ;  but  it  would  probably  be  claiming  too 
much  for  those  stations  to  say  that,  even 
when  the  farmer  takes  this  precaution,  there 
would  be  no  danger.  As  long  as  farm 
seeds  are  bought  in  the  open  market,  there 
will  be  some  danger  that  the  seeds  of  nox- 
ious w^eeds  will  be  brought  to  our  farms  by 
means  of  them. 

2.  Farm  live  stock.  Very  frequently  weed 
seeds  are  introduced  upon  a  farm  by  being 
carried  in  the  hair  or  wool  of  live  stock 
brought  from  other  localities.  Sometimes 
the  w^eed  seeds  cluster  about  the  hair  of  the 
mane  and  tail.     When  the  animals  are  given 


44 


Weeds. 


the  freedom  of  a  pasture,  or,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  the  freedom  of  the  farm, 
these  seeds  lose  their  hold,  and,  dropping 
to  the  ground,  begin  at  once  to  grow  and 
multiply.  If  a  flock  of  sheep  were  bought 
in  a  locality  where  weeds  abounded,  and 
were  brought  to  a  clean  farm,  and  there 
hurdled  in  a  corner  of  a  field  while  they 
were  being  tagged,  the  number  and  vari- 
ety o£  the  weeds  that  would  be  found  grow- 
ing in  that  spot  the  next  season  would  be 
surprising.  The  writer  can  testify  to  the 
correctness  of  this  statement  from  personal 
experience  and  observation. 

Again,  live  stock  distribute  the  seeds  of 
various  sorts  of  v^ecds  by  means  of  their 
droppings.  This  mode  of  weed  distribu- 
tion, though  somewhat  local,  is  very  com- 
mon, and  should  be  borne  in  mind  when 
removing  cattle  from  fields  infested  with 
noxious  weeds  to  other  portions  of  the 
farm  which,  as  yet,  may  not  be  infested 
with  them. 

J.  Purchased  feed  stuffs.  Weeds  are 
very  frequently  introduced  into  new  locali- 
ties by  being  carried  in  the  feed  stuffs  that 
are  brought  from  distant  places  to  sup- 
plement the  food  that  is  grown  upon  the 


Distribution  and  Propagation.        45 

farm  when  local  supplies  run  short.  More 
especially  is  this  likely  to  be  the  case  in  those 
localities  where  dairying  or  the  fattening  of 
live  stock  is  carried  on  extensively.  Weed 
seeds  have  long  been  thus  distributed  in 
both  grains  and  fodders ;  but  only  locally, 
until  recently,  in  the  latter,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  which  has  existed  of  transporting 
fodder  long  distances.  Now  that  fodders 
are  baled  for  ease  of  transport,  weed  seeds 
are  carried  long  distances  in  them  as  v/ell 
as  in  grains.  Indeed,  fodders  are  now  a 
more  dangerous  means  of  weed  distribu- 
tion even  than  grains,  since  fodders  are 
usually  fed  without  being  subjected  to 
steaming,  while  grains  may  be  steamed  or' 
ground  before  they  are  fed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  destroying  the  vitality  of  such  weed 
seeds  as  may  be  found  in  them.  Persons 
w^ho  purchase  mill  screenings  which  have 
not  first  been  ground  or  crushed,  and  who 
feed  them  without  steaming  or  grinding 
are  certain  to  bring  noxious  weed  seeds  to 
their  farms  in  countless  numbers. 

4.  Farmyard  manures.  Weeds  are  dis- 
tributed in  countless  numbers  by  the  agency 
of  barnyard  manures,  a  fact  which  farmers 
generally  know  very  well.     More  especially 


46  '  Weeds. 

are  they  distributed  by  means  of  the  man- 
ures which  are  purchased  in  towns  and 
cities,  owing  to  the  various  sources  from 
which  the  feed  stuffs  which  are  used  in 
these  places  often  come.  The  purchaser 
of  feed  stuffs  in  towns  and  cities  has  not 
the  same  interest  in  looking  into  the  purity 
of  what  he  buys  as  the  farmer ;  hence  it 
would  probalDly  be  exceptional  to  find  the 
manure  obtained  from  him  entirely  free 
from  the  seeds  of  foul  weeds.  Although 
manure  is  one  of  the  most  common  agen- 
cies by  which  weeds  are  distributed,  the 
weeds  that  are  distributed  by  means  of 
manure  are  likely  to  be  local  in  character, 
rather  than  distant  and  foreign. 

5.  Packing-eases,  evates,  ete.,  that  have 
been  used  for  the  carriage  of  goods.  Nox- 
ious weed  seeds  are  frequently  introduced 
into  new  localities  by  means  of  the  straw  or 
chaff  in  which  goods  have  been  packed  for 
shipment.  The  packing-cases  which  have 
held  the  goods  during  transport  are  often 
purchased  by  farmers  for  other  uses.  When 
these  are  brought  home  by  the  purchasers, 
the  packing  material  is  thoughtlessly  emp- 
tied out  upon  the  manure  heap  or  thrown 
aside,  the  weed  seeds  which  it  contains  are 


Distribution  and  Propagation.        47 

then  given  opportunity  to  produce  plants 
in  centers  perhaps  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  miles  distant  from  the  nearest  point 
where  any  of  the  same  species  may  be 
growing.  In  this  fact  we  find  an  explana- 
tion of  the  sudden  appearance  of  weeds  in 
new  centers  where  their  presence  otherwise 
would  be  hard  to  account  for ;  and  this  is 
more  especially  true  of  sections  in  proxim- 
ity to  cities. 

As  a  similar  method  of  weed  distribu- 
tion, it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  days 
of  early  settlement,  travelers  used  to  carry 
many  weed  seeds  in  the  provender  that  they 
brought  with  them  for  their  horses,  and 
which  the  animals  ate  by  the  road  sides,  or 
wherever  convenient ;  and  the  same  state- 
ment is  true  of  the  pioneer  settlers  of  the 
Northwest,  who  thus  often  introduced 
weed  seeds  into  their  allotments  before  they 
sowed  their  first  crop. 

6.  Road  and  farm  vehicles.  Noxious 
weed  seeds  are  frequently  brought  to  farms 
by  the  wheels  of  vehicles  which  have  been 
driven  'along  the  highway.  The  spread  of 
ragweed  furnishes  a  familiar  example  of 
this  sort  of  weed  distribution.  The  seeds 
of  this  weed,  and  also  of  others  that  grow 


48  PVeeds. 

along  the  public  roads,  are  carried  in  the 
mud  and  dirt  and  dust  that  cling  to  the 
wheels  of  every  passing  vehicle,  and  in 
this  way  they  are  brought  onto  the  farm. 
Sometimes  they  are  thus  conveyed  for 
miles,  not  merely  by  the  vehicles  used  by 
the  farmer  himself,  but  also  by  those 
belonging  to  others;  from  this  sort  of  inva- 
sion the  farmer  is,  in  a  sense,  powerless  to 
protect,  himself.  In  a  similar  manner,  weed 
seeds  are  also  conveyed  from  one  part  of 
the  farm  to  another. 

/.  Implements  of  tillage.  Weeds  are,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  distributed  by  the 
ordinary  implements  of  farm  tillage,  to 
which  they  cling  during  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  cultivation.  While  this  is  true  to 
some  extent  of  all  kinds  of  weeds,  it  is 
more  especially  true  of  those  weeds  which 
multiply  by  means  of  creeping  root-stocks. 
These  root-stocks  readily  cling  to  the  plow, 
harrow,  or  cultivator,  and  are  thus  carried 
from  one  portion  of  a  field  to  another,  or 
even  from  one  field  to  another;  and  thus 
new  centers  of  distribution  are  constantly 
being  established.  This  is  especially  true 
when  the  ground  is  so  damp  that  it  tends 
to  stick  to  the  imulements  used.     Seeds  or 


Distribution  and  t^ropagation.        49 

root-stocks  embedded  in  the  earth  that  is 
thus  carried  from  place  to  place  are  depos- 
ited in  new  centers,  where  they  spring  up 
to  carry  on  the  work  of  further  multipli- 
cation. The  distributing  power  of  the 
implements  of  tillage  under  favorable  con- 
ditions furnishes  us  with  one  explanation 
of  the  rapid  multiplication  in  our  fields  of 
such  weeds  as  quack  grass  and  the  Canada 
thistle,  when  once  these  pests  have  obtained 
a  footing  in  them. 

8.  Thrashing  machines.  Thrashing  ma- 
chines, during  the  season  in  which  they 
are  used,  are  continually  bearing  the  seeds 
of  noxious  weeds  from  farm  to  farm,  and 
from  district  to  district ;  for  at  every  thrash- 
ing, if  weed  seeds  are  present  at  all,  some 
of  them  are  sure  to  become  lodged  in  the 
various  parts  of  the  machines,  and  to 
remain  long  enough  to  be  carried  away. 
In  this  manner,  from  year  to  year,  a  very 
general  local  distribution  is  sure  to  be 
effected  of  every  form  of  noxious  weed 
w^hich  matures  its  seeds  in  a  grain  crop. 
Farms  that  are  managed  in  the  best  man- 
ner often  become  thus  infected  with  noxious 
weed  life. 


50  i^v  ccas.  ^ 

p.  Kailzvays.  Railways  seem  to  be  a 
wonderfully  effective  agency  in  the  distri- 
bution of  weeds,  by  means  of  the  fodder 
supplied  to  the  horses  and  other  animals 
used  in  constructing  them,  and  the  bedding 
of  cars  in  which  live  stock  is  carried.  The 
litter  with  which  these  cars  are  supplied 
frequently  contains  noxious  weed  seeds ; 
these,  falling  to  the  ground,  grow  in  the 
soil  along  the  track  and  commence  to  repro- 
duce their  kind.  A  third  explanation  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  oftentimes  the  weed 
seeds  contained  in  the  grain  that  is  being 
shipped  escape  through  leaks  in  the  cars 
and  fall  to  the  sides  of  the  track,  where  they 
often  find  conditions  quite  suitable  to  their 
germination.  In  these  and  other  ways,  the 
railways  of  the  country  have  become  largely 
responsible  for  the  introduction  of  new  and 
troublesome  weeds  into  localities  where  pre- 
viously they  were  unknown. 

10.  Birds.  Birds  carry  weed  seeds  to 
great  distances.  A  sprig  of  a  plant  on 
which  the  seeds  have  not  left  the  capsules 
in  which  they  grew  is  caught  up  by  a  bird 
and  carried  to  some  distant  place  where 
the  food  which  its  seeds  afford  can  be 
enjoyed  without  molestation.     Some  of  the 


Distrioutwn  and  Propagation.        51 

seeds  thus  carried  fall  by  the  way,  and 
start  new  centers  of  weed  distribution.  The 
instinct  for  nest-building  not  infrequently 
leads  to  similar  results.  In  this  fact  we 
find  an  explanation  of  the  unexpected 
appearance  of  weeds  along  the  edges  of 
forests,  and  in  other  localities  where  the 
soil  has  never  been  subjected  to  cultivation. 

//.  IVild  animals.  Certain  wild  animals 
are  the  local  distributors  of  weeds,  for, 
being  fond  of  a  varied  diet,  they  include 
the  seeds  of  certain  weeds  in  their  list  of 
desirable  foods.  Sometimes  they  bury  or 
store  away  weed  seeds  when  layng  up  their 
winter's  supply.  They  also  use  the  foli- 
age and  stems  of  weeds  in  building  their 
lairs  or  nests.  When  gathering  these,  they 
sometimes  attempt  to  carry  loads  which  are 
more  than  they  can  manage,  and  so  leave 
a  part  upon  the  way,  for  which  they  may 
not  return.  The  seeds  that  are  thus  dis- 
tributed here  and  there  on  the  soil,  or  are 
dropped  at  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  or  left 
unconsumed  in  the  nest,  spring  at  length 
into  vigorous  life,  and  commence  again  the 
w^ork  of  weed  distribution. 

12.  Waters.  Few  agencies  are  more 
potent   in   the  distribution  of  the  seeds  of 


52  Weeds. 

weeds,  especially  of  such  seeds  as  float  read- 
ily, than  water.  When  the  valleys  are  del- 
uged by  heavy  rains,  or  when  they  are 
turned  into  streams  or  rivers  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows,  such  weed  seeds  are  car- 
ried in  countless  numbers  to  lower  levels, 
on  the  soil  of  which  they  are  deposited 
when  the  waters  recede.  A  fresh  seeding  is 
in  this  way  scattered  from  year  to  year 
over  the  surfaces  that  are  thus  exposed. 
At  present,  there  is  no  effectual  protection 
from  this  sort  of  invasion.  So  long  as  care- 
less farmers  on  the  higher  grounds  allow 
the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds  to  ripen  annu- 
ally on  their  fields,  so  long  will  the  farmers 
on  the  lower  levels  have  weed  seeds  strewn 
upon  their  fields  in  countless  numbers.  The 
only  remedy  is  for  the  law  in  some  way  to 
intervene  and  compel  the  careless  farmer  to 
cease  troubling,  in  this  most  reprehensible 
way,  his  unoffending  neighbor. 

/J.  Winds.  Some  forms  of  weed  life 
are  widely  distributed  through  the  agency 
of  winds.  This  is  especially  true  of  those 
weeds,  the  seeds  of  which  have  downy 
attachments  that  enable  them  to  rise  in  the 
air  when  they  are  fully  matured.  Happily 
for  the  agriculturist,  many  of  the  seeds  so 


Distribution  and  Propagation.        53 

endowed  do  not  grow  for  lack  of  proper 
fertilization;  but  enough  are  fertilized  to 
give  the  farmer  much  trouble.  Hence  many 
sorts  of  weeds  are  continually  finding  their 
way  to  new  centers,  to  which  they  have  a 
passage  as  silent  as  it  is  free.  Some  of 
these  downy  travelers  are  able  to  sustain 
their  flight  to  incredible  distances ;  others, 
on  account  of  their  greater  weight,  are  car- 
ried but  for  short  distances.  It  should  cer- 
tainly fill  us  with  some  concern  to  reflect 
that  the  winds  while  purifying  the  atmos- 
phere, are  also  engaged,  especially  in  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year,  in  scattering  every- 
where the  seeds  of  many  exceedingly 
troublesome  weeds.  While  it  is  greatly 
important  that  no  form  of  noxious  weed 
should  ever  be  allowed  to  mature  its  seed, 
it  is  doubly  so  in  the  case  of  weeds,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  able  to  rise  in  the  air. 

Winds  distribute  the  seeds  of  weeds  by 
their  driving  as  well  as  by  their  car- 
rying power.  The  seeds  of  some  weeds 
remain  in  their  capsules  long  after  their 
season  of  growth  is  over ;  in  some  instances 
even  until  the  approach  of  spring.  These 
are  often  shaken  out  by  the  force  of  the 
winter    winds,    and    are    driven    incredibly 


54  Weeds. 

long  distances,  till  at  length  they  find  a  rest- 
ing place.  Then,  when  spring  arrives,  they 
begin  their  work  of  reproduction. 

In  the  carrying  and  driving  power  of  the 
wind,  we  find  an  explanation  of  what  would 
otherwise  be  difficult  of  solution,  namely, 
the  sudden  appearance  of  weeds  in  count- 
less numbers  in  areas  which  have  been 
broken  for  the  first  time,  or  from  which 
the  forests  have  been  but  recently  removed. 
In  some  instances,  the  weeds  appear  in 
numbers  so  great  that  for  a  time  they  form 
the  principal  product  of  the  soil.  It  is  this 
phenomenon  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
baseless  opinion,  still  cherished  by  many, 
that  weeds  originate  spontaneously,  spring- 
ing into  life  without  a  seed  germ,  or  else 
that  they  grow  from  seed  which  has  been 
for  ages  lying  in  the  soil. 

i/j..  Inherent  pozvers  of  the  weeds  them- 
selves. Weeds  also  spread  and  distribute 
themselves  by  means  of  what  may  be 
termed  their  own  inherent  powers ;  that  is 
to  say,  by  ripening  seeds  which  are  shed 
on  the  ground  around  the  parent  stem,  or 
by  means  of  creeping  root-stocks.  By  the 
former  method,  whole  families  are  often 
reproduced   around  one  parent   stem   in   a 


Distribution  and  Propagation.         55 

single  season  ;  and  by  the  latter  many  weeds 
are  continually  spreading  and  occupying 
wider  and  wider  areas.  These  powers  of 
reproduction  enable  weeds  to  multiply  rap- 
idly, without  the  aid  of  any  of  the  agencies 
previously  mentioned,  when  once  they  have 
been  brought  into  new  centers  by  one  or 
another  of  these  agencies. 

With  the  agencies  that  have  been  men- 
tioned continually  engaged  in  the  work  of 
weed  distribution,  and  also  with  others  that 
have  not  been  mentioned,  the  task  of  the 
eradication  of  weeds  at  first  thought  seems 
appalling.  While  the  power  of  weeds  to 
multiply  and  spread  is  very  great,  the  power 
of  man  to  destroy  them  is  greater,  unless 
this  limitless  power  is  allowed  to  pass  unu- 
tilized with  the  rush  of  crowding  oppor- 
tunities. While  it  is  true  that  there  can 
be  no  discharge  in  this  war,  it  is  equally 
true  that  there  can  be  no  defeat  for  the 
resolute  tiller  of  the  soil  who  persistently 
and  constantly  strives  to  keep  his  farm 
clean. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  over 
some  of  these  agencies  of  weed  distribu- 
tion we  can  exercise  but  little  or  no  control. 
These  are  the  agencies  of  nature — as  wind 


56  Weeds. 

and  water,  and  such  other  agencies  as  wild 
animals  and  birds.  So  far  as  these  are  con- 
cerned, we  must  submit  to  the  inevitable, 
and  fight  them,  when  we  are  subjected  to 
their  influence,  as  best  we  may.  Our 
resource  here  is  to  kill  the  weeds  as  soon 
as  possible  after  they  appear,  or  at  least 
before  they  mature  their  seeds. 

Where  the  agencies  are  but  partially 
under  our  control,  as  implements  of  tillage 
or  thrashing  machines,  our  duty  is,  by 
watchfulness,  patience,  and  care,  to  control 
the  agencies  so  far  as  we  have  power.  The 
judicious  exercise  of  this  control  will  always 
be  found  easier  than  the  eradication  of  the 
weeds  which  they  have  been  allowed  to 
bring  to  us. 

When  the  agencies  are  practically  com- 
pletely under  our  control,  as  that  of  the 
inherent  power  of  the  weed  plant  to  ripen 
its  own  seeds,  or  to  spread  itself  by  means 
of  creeping  root-stocks,  the  measure  of  the 
persistency  of  our  efforts  to  defeat  this 
power  will  be  the  measure  of  the  time 
required  to  effect  complete  extermination. 
If  weeds  multiply  upon  our  farms  by  the 
shedding  of  their  seeds,  it  is  because  we 
allow  them  to  do  so;  and  if  they  multiply 


Distribution  and  Propagation.         57 

by  means  of  lateral  root  extension,  it  is 
because  we  do  not  use  the  resources 
which  we  have  at  command  to  pre- 
vent this  extension.  The  farmers  who 
tolerate  either  of  these  methods  of  weed 
distribution  will  never  have  clean  farms. 
We  sympathize  with  the  man  of  scrip- 
ture in  whose  fields,  when  he  slept, 
the  enemy  sowed  tares;  but  he  deserves  no 
sympathy  who  negligently  allows  weeds  to 
ripen  their  seeds  upon  his  farm,  or  to  prop- 
agate themselves  by  means  of  root  exten- 
sion. Such  a  man  is  indififerent  to  his  own 
true  interests,  for  he  allows  voracious 
intruders  from  year  to  year  to  prey  upon 
the  sources  of  his  own  prosperity. 


CHAPTER  V. 

METHODS       AND        PRINCIPLES        GENERALLY 

APPLICABLE   IN    THE  DESTRUCTION    OF 

WEEDS. 

In  the  conflict  with  weeds,  there  are  cer- 
tain general  methods  and  principles  which 
are  applicable  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
for  the  destruction  of  all  weeds ;  and  there 
are  also  certain  specific  modes  of  treatment 
which  apply  only  to  the  eradication  of  par- 
ticular sorts  of  weeds.  In  the  present  chap- 
ter we  shall  consider  the  general  methods 
and  principles  applicable  in  weed  destruc- 
tion, and  in  the  following  chapters  treat  of 
the  specific  modes  which  are  applicable  only 
in  particular  cases. 

The  general  methods  and  principles 
applicable  in  weed  destruction  which,  in 
the  writer's  opinion,  are  of  the  most  conse- 
quence, may  be  described  as  follows : 


MctJwds  of  Eradication.  59 

(i)  The  persistent  and  careful  study  of 
the  habits  of  growth  of  all  the  various  sorts 
of  weeds  with  which  one's  farm  is  infested, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  deal  with  them  in  the 
most  rational  way  possible. 

(2)  The  modification  (when  necessary) 
of  the  scheme  of  rotation  that  has  been 
adopted,  so  that  such  crops  as  allow  the 
seeds  of  the  weeds  which  infest  them  to 
ripen  may,  for  a  time,  be  omitted  from  the 
rotation. 

(3)  When  certain  methods  of  eradica- 
tion have  been  fixed  upon,  the  careful  and 
wise  adaptation  of  these  methods  to  such 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  as  are  found 
in  the  locality  concerned. 

(4)  The  exercise  of  due  care,  when 
seeds  are  purchased,  to  see  that  they  are 
perfectly  pure,  that  is,  perfectly  free  from 
the  seeds  of  weeds;  and  also  the  exercise 
of  due  care  with  respect  to  such  seeds  as 
are  grown  at  home  to  see  that  they,  too, 
are  perfectly  free  from  weed  seeds. 

(5)  The  exercise  of  due  care  to  see  that 
the  thrashing  machine,  especially  when  it 
comes  directly  from  a  farm  infested  with 
any  form  of  noxious  weed,  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  it  is  used. 


6o  Weeds. 

(6)  The  exercise  of  due  care  to  see  that 
the  chaff  from  the  fanning  mill,  when  it  is 
suspected  of  containing  any  weed  seeds,  is 
burnt  or  otherwise  thoroughly  destroyed 
and  that  all  screenings  are  also  carefully 
looked  after. 

(7)  The  growing  of  cultivated  crops 
upon  the  farm  infested,  to  the  largest  extent 
that   is   practicable. 

(8)  The  growing  of  clover  and  alfalfa, 
so  far  as  this  can  be  done  with  profit. 

(9)  The  growing  of  soiling  crops,  to  the 
extent  that  may  be  found  practicable,  both 
because  of  the  fact  that  they  can  be  cut 
almost  at  any  time  that  is  desirable,  and 
also  because  of  their  "smothering"  prop- 
erties. 

(10)  The  utilizing  of  sheep  for  the 
destruction  of  weeds  in  pastures. 

(11)  The  growing  at  home,  as  far  as 
possible,  of  the  food  required  by  the  live 
stock  of  the  farm,  instead  of  purchasing  it 
elsewhere. 

(12)  The  keeping  of  the  land  of  the 
farm  constantly  at  work,  so  far  as  this  can 
possibly  be  effected. 

(13)  The  stimulation  of  the  soil  to  a  con- 
stantly   vigorous    production   by   means   of 


Methods  of  Eradication.  6i 

thorough    working    and    a    large    use    of 
manure. 

(14)  The  practice  of  autumn  cultivation 
to  the  largest  extent  that  is  possible. 

(15)  The  exercise  of  the  utmost  possible 
precaution  that  no  weed  seeds  ripen  upon 
the  farm,  if  by  any  means  their  ripening 
can  be  prevented. 

(16)  The  sowing  of  two  or  three  crops 
in  succession  the  same  season  and  grazing 
them  down  with  sheep. 

(17)  The  giving  of  due  heed  to  all  the 
agencies  by  which  weeds  are  distributed 
and  propagated,  so  as  always  to  be  able  to 
counteract  or  defeat  those  agencies. 

(18)  When  once  the  work  of  eradica- 
tion has  been  undertaken,  the  making  of  it 
as  thorough  as  possible,  and  the  accom- 
plishment of  it  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 

(19)  When  once  a  state  of  cleanliness 
has  been  secured,  the  maintenance  of  it 
thereafter  as  perfectly  as  possible  under  all 
circumstances. 

It  is  greatly  important  that  these  general 
principles  and  methods  of  weed  destruc- 
tion should  be  well  understood  and  care- 
fully observed ;  for  these  are  even  more 
important  than  those  specific  modes  of  weed 


62  Weeds. 

destruction  which  are  described  hi  the  fol- 
lowing chapters.  In  fact,  unless  in  our 
management  of  the  farm  we  pay  tlie  utmost 
heed  to  these  general  principles  and  methods 
of  weed  destruction,  we  can  never  hope  to 
be  completely  successful  in  our  war  with 
weeds.  As  the  writer  has  made  it  his  habit 
for  many  years  to  test  the  value  of  these 
general  principles  and  methods  by  con- 
stantly putting  them  into  practice,  he  will 
here  set  down  in  specific  directions,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  brother  farmers  in  this  most 
important  question  of  weed  destruction, 
such  remarks  as  he  thinks  his  experience 
entitles  him  to  make. 

7.  Study  tlieir  habits  of  groivth.  In  the 
war  with  weeds,  we  must  study  their  hab- 
its of  growth,  and  adapt  our  methods  of 
fighting  them  to  fit  in  with  these  habits. 
Weeds,  like  other  plants,  are  classified  as 
annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 

Annuals,  as  their  name  implies,  complete 
the  cycle  of  their  existence  in  a  single  sea- 
son, although  in  some  instances  they  may 
start  growth  in  the  fall,  particularly  in  the 
warmer  sections.  They  are  then  called 
ivinter  annuals.  Common  examples  of  this 
class  are  shepherd's  purse,  chickwccd  and 


Habits  of  Grozvth.  63 

cheat,  while  among  our  cultivated  crops, 
winter  rye  and  winter  wheat  are  winter 
annuals.  More  commonly,  annuals  begin 
to  grow  toward  the  approach  of  spring. 
Common  examples  of  summer  or  ordinary 
annuals  are  ragweed,  foxtail  and  pigweed, 
while  among  our  cultivated  crops  we  have 
corn,  oats,  flax,  spring  wheat,  and  many 
others.  It  follows,  then,  that  as  annual 
weeds  can  live  but  a  single  season,  if  the 
plants  of  any  particular  sort  of  weeds  of 
this  class  on  any  farm  are  prevented  from 
ripening  their  seeds  year  by  year  through 
successive  years,  the  time  must  come  sooner 
or  later  when  that  sort  of  weed  will  be 
completely  destroyed  on  that  farm.  This  is 
true  whatever  may  be  the  means  that  may 
be  adopted  to  prevent  the  seeds  from  ripen- 
ing. In  fact,  the  weeds  would  all  be 
destroyed  in  a  single  year  were  it  not  that 
many  seeds  have  great  power  to  resist 
decay,  and  many  remain  in  the  soil  for 
many  years  without  their  vitality  being  lost 
or  even  impaired.  Some  seeds  of  this  class 
of  weeds,  as  those  of  wild  mustard,  retain 
their  vitality  for  an  incredible  length  of 
time ;  so  that  whenever  they  are  brought 
sufificiently  near  the  surface  by  cultivation, 


64  Weeds. 

or  by  other  means,  at  any  time  during  the 
congenial  season  of  growth,  they  at  once 
spring  into  vigorous  Hfe.  The  means  to 
be  taken  in  destroying  weeds  that  are 
annuals  should  be,  first,  to  prevent  them 
from  maturing  their  seeds ;  and,  second,  to 
adopt  such  modes  of  cultivation  as  will 
most  quickly  force  th.e  seeds  that  are  in  the 
soil  into  germination,  so  that  they  may 
spring  up  and  be  destroyed.  The  means 
best  fitted  to  secure  this  quick  germination 
of  the  buried  seeds  of  annuals  are  the 
growing  of  cultivated  crops  and  "autumn 
cultivation."  At  all  events,  when  the  seeds 
of  annual  weeds  are  kept  from  ripening 
year  after  year,  and  when  the  agencies  con- 
cerned in  their  dissemination  are  effectu- 
ally looked  after  and  checkmated,  the  time 
cannot  fail  to  come  when  this  class  of  weeds 
will  all  be  destroyed. 

Biennial  weeds  complete  the  cycle  of 
their  existence  in  two  years.  Many  of 
them  are  characterized  by  a  tap  root,  grow- 
ing deep  into  the  soil.  During  the  first  year 
large  quantities  of  starch  are  stored  up  in 
this  root,  which  is  utilized  the  next  year  in 
producing  an  abundance  of  seeds.  The 
burdock  furnishes  an  excellent  example  ot 


Habits  of  Growth.  65 

this  sort  of  weed,  being  well  known  and 
common  in  many  lands,  while  among  our 
crop  plants  red  clover  is  our  most  common 
biennial.  As  biennial  weeds  are  repro- 
duced from  seed  only,  it  is  evident  that  any 
mode  of  destruction  that  wall  prevent  them 
from  producing  seed  will  also  in  time  effect 
their  destruction,  but  it  may  take  years  to 
accomplish  this,  as  the  seeds  of  this  class 
also  have  great  vitality.  Fortunately,  how- 
ever, biennial  weeds  cannot  well  resist  the 
destructive  effects  upon  their  roots  of  thor- 
ough cultivation;  hence  we  find  this  class 
of  weeds  more  common  in  old  meadows 
and  pastures,  along  roadsides,  and  in  waste 
lands  generally,  than  in  fields  that  are  cul- 
tivated. In  areas  which  cannot  be  culti- 
vated, therefore,  their  destruction  is  more 
difficult  than  elsewhere.  To  destroy  them 
in  these  places  persistent  cutting  with  the 
mower,  scythe,  or  spud  is  the  only  method 
that  can  be  adopted ;  but  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  with  many  varieties  of  bien- 
nial weeds  there  is  not  only  a  great  persis- 
tency of  growth,  but  also,  during  the  sec- 
ond year,  a  great  persistency  of  effort  to 
produce  their  seeds,  even  though  they  are 
cut  off  several  times  during  the  season. 


66  Weeds. 

Perennials,  as  their  name  implies,  live 
from  year  to  year.  Of  perennial  weeds 
there  are  two  classes,  viz.,  the  perennial 
with  an  ordinary  root,  and  the  perennial 
with  a  creeping  root-stock.  The  perennial 
weed  with  an  ordinary  root-stock,  or,  as  we 
may  call  it  for  our  purpose,  the  ovdinavy 
perennial,  is  reproduced  from  seed  only. 
The  ox-eye  daisy  is  a  common  example  of 
this  sort  of  weed,  and  the  plantain  is 
another,  while  alfalfa  is  a  perenniaL  field 
crop.  The  creeping  perennial,  as  we  may 
call  it,  is  not  only  reproduced  from  seed, 
but  is  also  propagated  by  means  of  its  hor- 
izontal root-stocks,  which  run,  or  "creep," 
through  the  soil  in  various  directions  from 
the  parent  stem.  These  creeping  root-stocks 
are  furnished  with  many  latent  buds,  each 
one  of  wdiich,  under  conditions  favorable  ta 
vigorous  growth,  is  capable  of  sending  up 
a  fresh  plant  to  the  surface.  It  follows, 
then,  that  the  cultivation  which  does  not 
weaken  and  destroy  creeping  perennials 
necessarily  favors  their  increase,  inasmuch 
as  a  soil  that  has  been  recently  stirred  is 
more  easily  penetrated  by  the  creeping  root- 
stocks  than  one  that  has  not  been  so  stirred, 
and  has  become  more  compact.     Whenever 


Habits  of  Growth.  by 

any  disturbing  action  is  brought  to  bear 
upon  these  root-stocks,  as,  for  example, 
breaking  them  oft"  from  their  parent  stem 
by  the  implements  of  tillage,  a  fresh  impulse 
is  given  to  their  growth.  Each  rootlet  so 
severed  attempts  to  develop  into  a  complete 
plant.  Hence  it  is  that,  in  moist  weather, 
ordinary  cultivation  is  more  likely  to  pro- 
mote than  hinder  the  growth  of  this  class 
of  weeds.  The  influence  of  summer-fallows 
and  of  cultivated  crops  which  are  poorly 
cared  for,  is  also  in  the  same  direction. 
Creeping  perennials  are  also  likely  to  cling 
to  the  implements  of  tillage,  and  thus  be 
carried  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another, 
and  even  to  other  fields.  The  Canada  this- 
tle, the  common  sow  thistle,  and  quack 
grass  furnish  familiar  examples  of  creep- 
ing perennials ;  and  we  are  sure  the  experi- 
ence of  our  readers  will  bear  us  out  in  what 
we  have  just  said  of  the  tendency  of  culti- 
vation, in  moist  weather,  to  promote  their 
increase. 

To  destroy  creeping  perennials  we  must 
labor  either  to  smother  them,  or  else  by 
cultivation  to  bring  their  roots  to  the  sur- 
face, where  they  will  perish  by  exposure  to 
the  air  and   sunshine.       By   "smothering" 


68  Weeds, 

them  is  meant  keeping  them  constantly 
under  ground.  If  creeping  perennials  are 
kept  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  for 
some  months  during  the  early  spring  and 
summer,  they  will  perish  in  a  single  season, 
and  this  result  will  be  gained  whatever  may 
be  the  means  made  use  of  to  effect  it, 
whether  spudding,  plowing,  cultivating,  or 
covering. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted,  and  the  asser- 
tion is  commonly  accepted  as  true,  that 
creeping  pereimials  are  more  difficult  to 
destroy  than  other  classes  of  weeds.  This 
assertion  is  supported  by  the  specious  argu- 
ment, that  whereas  creeping  perennials  have 
two  means  of  propagation,  (i)  their  seeds, 
and  (2)  their  creeping  root-stocks,  which 
push  their  way  through  the  soil  in  every 
direction,  annual  and  biennial  weeds,  and 
ordinary  perennials  also,  have  but  one 
means  of  propagation,  namely,  their  seeds 
alone.  It  should  be  remembered  that,  in 
making  this  comparison,  other  things  have 
to  be  considered.  We  must  also  take  into 
account  the  number  of  seeds  produced  by 
each  sort  of  weed,  their  vitality,  and  the 
modes  by  which  these  seeds  are  distributed 
and  fresh  plants  produced,  the  crops  that 


Habits  of  Growth,  69 

are  infested  by  each  particular  kind  of  weed, 
and  the  power  which  the  various  kinds  pos- 
sess of  maintaining  themselves  in  perma- 
nent pastures  and  waste  places. 

Some  annuals,  such  as  ragweed,  bear 
seeds  in  almost  countless  numbers,  whereas 
the  number  of  seeds  produced  by  creeping 
perennials  is  usually  not  very  large.  The 
diversion  of  the  energies  of  creeping  peren- 
nials from  seed-bearing  to  increase  by 
means  of  their  root-stocks  is,  therefore,  so 
far  unfavorable  to  their  reproduction  that 
the  excess  of  seed  production  in  annuals 
not  infrequently  more  than  counterbalances 
the  advantage  gained  by  creeping  perennials 
by  reason  of  the  dual  powers  of  propaga- 
tion which  they  possess.  Moreover,  the  vital- 
ity of  the  seeds  of  some  sorts  of  annual 
weeds,  as  those  of  wild  mustard,  is  so  great 
that  they  seem  to  be  able  to  retain  their  abil- 
ity to  grow  for  a  much  longer  period  than 
the  seeds  of  creeping  perennials.  Again, 
when  the  seeds  of  an  annual  or  biennial 
weed  are  transported  from  place  to  place  by 
water,  or  by  animals,  they  are  given  an 
advantage  which  goes  far  to  match  the 
more  dangerous  powers  possessed  by  the 
seeds  of  some  perennial  weeds,  such  as  the 


yo  Weeds. 

thistle,  in  their  abihty  to  travel  from  place 
to  place  through  the  agency  of  winds. 
Weeds  which  mature  their  seeds  along  with 
those  of  the  clovers  and  grasses,  as  many 
ordinary  perennial  weeds  do,  are  much 
more  likely  to  be  widely  distributed  than 
those  which  mature  their  seeds  along 
with  those  of  cereals,  owing  to  the  great 
difficulty  that  is  experienced  in  separating 
the  seeds  of  weeds  from  the  seeds  of  clov- 
ers and  grasses.  Again,  some  forms  of 
weed  life,  particularly  some  biennial  w^eeds, 
find  a  congenial  and  permanent  home  in 
pastures  and  waste  places,  although  in  cul- 
tivated fields  they  might  not  prove  very 
harmful.  The  labor  required  to  remove 
these  w^eeds  from  such  places  is  very  great, 
as  it  has  generally  to  be  done  by  hand ; 
whereas  in  the  same  localities  annuals  and 
perennials  may  not  be  able  to  get  a  footing, 
because  of  unfavorable  conditions.  On 
account  of  these  conditions,  and  of  others 
not  named,  such  as  the  congeniality  or 
uncongeniality  of  soils,  it  will  be  found  that 
in  some  localities  the  weeds  most  difficult 
of  eradication  will  be  annuals,  in  others  they 
will  be  biennials,  in  others  thev  will  be  ordi- 


Change  of  Rotation.  yi 

nary  perennials,  and  in  yet  others,  creeping 
perennials. 

2.  Modify  the  rotation.  In  the  conflict 
with  weeds,  it  is  greatly  advantageous  to 
drop  out  of  the  rotation  for  a  time  such 
crops  as  allow  the  weeds  which  infest  the 
soil  where  they  grow  to  ripen  their  seeds. 
Some  weeds,  as,  for  example,  those  which 
grow  as  winter  annuals,  ripen  their  seeds 
early  in  the  season.  The  seeds  of  these 
weeds  mature  in  crops  of  winter  wheat,  rye, 
and  hay,  but  ordinarily  they  do  not  mature 
in  spring  cereal  crops,  for  the  reason  that 
these  weeds  begin  their  growth  in  the  pre- 
vious autumn.  If,  therefore,  in  the  infested 
fields  winter  wheat,  rye,  and  hay  are 
dropped  out  of  the  rotation  for  a  short 
time,  and  spring  crops  grown  in  their  stead, 
the  destruction  of  the  weeds  mentioned  and 
of  those  of  kindred  habits  will  be  greatly 
facilitated.  Other  weeds  ripen  their  seeds 
late.  Ragweed,  for  example,  more  com- 
monly grows  up  after  the  early  cereal  crops 
and  meadows  have  been  cut,  and,  if  undis- 
turbed, it  matures  its  seeds  before  frost. 
Grass  seed,  therefore,  in  fields  infested  with 
this  sort  of  weed,  should  not  be  sown  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  meadow  until  the 


'J2  Weeds. 

ragweed  seeds  have  become  greatly  reduced 
in  number  through  the  growing  of  crops 
which  require  late  cultivation.  Other  weeds, 
such  as  the  Canada  thistle,  grow  in  all  kinds 
of  crops,  so  that  when  a  piece  of  ground  is 
badly  infested  with  them  some  kind  of  cul- 
tivated crop  should  be  grown  upon  it,  as 
the  constant  cultivation  required  will  tend 
to  destroy  them  while  the  crop  is  growing. 

Farmers  are  usually  much  averse  to  a 
modification  of  their  fixed  scheme  of  rota- 
tion, even  for  a  limited  time;  and  more 
especially  so  when  the  modification  inter- 
feres with  those  crops  which  have  been  their 
chief  source  of  cash  revenue.  Notwith- 
standing this,  the  truth  remains  that  where 
the  modification  required  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  any  sort  of  weed  is  not  made,  the 
ultimate  eradication  of  this  weed  will  be 
found  a  very  difficult  matter. 

J.  Adapt  methods  to  conditions.  In  our 
attempts  to  eradicate  weeds,  we  should  care- 
fully adapt  the  methods  that  we  follow  to 
those  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  cultiva- 
tion, etc.,  which  we  find  to  exist.  These 
conditions  have,  of  course,  an  important 
bearing  on  the  growth  of  weeds,  and, 
therefore,  upon  their  destruction.     In  stiff 


Adapt  Methods  to  Conditions.  y;^ 

clay  soils  with  a  hard  subsoil,  the  Canada 
thistle,  for  instance,  can  be  destroyed  by 
sirr^ply  turning  the  land  into  pasture,  and 
mowing  down  the  thistles  when  in  blossom, 
and  again  at  a  period  considerably  later. 
On  other  soils  of  more  open  texture  this 
mode  of  destroying  thistles  would  not  suc- 
ceed for  a  long  time,  if  at  all.  In  some 
climates  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
seeds  of  the  Canada  thistle  are  fertilized, 
and  will  therefore  grow ;  while  in  other 
localities  it  does  not  seem  very  harmful  to 
allow  the  thistle  to  be  harvested  along  with 
the  crops  in  which  they  ripen,  because  of 
the  inability  of  their  seeds  to  grow  for  lack 
of  proper  fertilization.  Other  kinds  of 
weeds,  as  sheep  sorrel,  are  almost  harmless 
in  certain  sections ;  whereas  in  others  they 
become  great  pests.  Where  winter  wheat 
or  rye  is  grown  extensively,  specific  meas- 
ures might  be  necessary  to  destroy  winter 
annuals ;  wdiereas,  if  the  wheat  or  the  rye 
were  not  of  much  account  in  the  rotation, 
it  would  be  an  easy  matter  to  get  rid  of  this 
class  of  weeds  by  growing  spring  crops 
successively  for  a  few  years. 

If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  destroy  a  par- 
ticular sort  of  weed  with  the  least  possible 


74  Weeds. 

expenditure  of  labor,  we  must  study  the 
habits  of  that  weed  as  affected  by  the  con- 
ditions under  which  it  grows.  Under  some 
conditions,  ordinary  "good  farming"  will 
generally  banish  a  weed ;  while  under  oth- 
ers "specific  methods,"  energetically  and 
persistently  applied,  will  be  absolutely 
necessary.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that 
for  the  destruction  of  weeds  hard  and  fast 
rules  that  will  be  equally  applicable  under 
all  circumstances  cannot  be  laid  down,  for 
what  would  be  a  proper  course  to  pursue 
under  some  conditions  may  be  wholly  unfit 
under  others. 

4.  Sozv  only  clean  seed.  Where  farms 
are  to  be  made  clean,  and  to  be  kept  so, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  pur- 
chase of  seeds,  and  also  in  the  preparation 
for  the  sowing  of  those  grown  at  home.  The 
distribution  of  weeds  is  more  widely  effected 
through  the  agency  of  the  seeds  sown  for 
useful  crops  than  in  any  other  way,  as  was 
shown  in  Chapter  IV.  It  has,  doubtless, 
been  through  this  agency  that  nearly  all 
our  foreign  weeds  have  been  brought  to 
our  land.  It  is  not  enough  for  the  seeds- 
man to  assure  us  that  his  seeds  are  clean, 
for  he  may  be  deceived  himself.       If  his 


Sozi'  Clean  Seed.  75 

small  seeds  have  not  been  carefully  hand- 
picked,  he  can  have  no  certain  assurance 
except  by  critical  examination  that  they  are 
clean  ;  and  in  the  preparation  for  sowing  of 
the  great  variety  of  seeds  in  which  he  deals 
hand-picking  is  out  of  the  question.  Pur- 
chased seeds,  therefore,  should  not  only  be 
examined  with  the  utmost  care,  and  be 
cleaned  again  if  weed  seeds  are  discovered 
in  them,  but  the  crops  that  are  raised  from 
them  should  receive  the  most  careful  scru- 
tiny while  they  are  growing,  so  long  as 
there  is  any  ground  for  suspecting  that 
weeds  also  are  growing  among  them.  As 
weed  seeds  are  oftener  carried  in  the  seeds 
of  clovers  and  grasses  than  in  other  w^ays, 
particular  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
purchase  of  any  seeds  of  these  crops. 

It  may,  indeed,  be  w^ise  to  grow  at  home 
many  sorts  of  seeds  that  are  now^  commonly 
purchased,  or  else  to  buy  them  from  a 
neighbor  who  has  a  reputation  for  growing 
pure  seeds.  It  would  be  well,  too,  when 
attempting  to  raise  one's  own  seed,  to  select 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  crop  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  to  take  special  pains  to  prevent 
any  noxious  weeds  from  maturing  their 
seeds  in  this  portion  ;  and  this  plan  should 


76  Weeds. 

be  followed  with  all  the  crops  grown  for 
seed,  especially  grasses  and  clovers.  It 
has  already  been  mentioned  that  weed  seeds 
frequently  come  to  us  in  the  seed  grains 
brought  to  our  farms  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  a  change  of  seed.  The  danger 
here,  though  not  easily  altogether  averted, 
may  yet  be  lessened.  If  the  seed  of  all 
cereal  grains  were  carefully  prepared  by 
such  a  process  of  screening  as  would  sift 
out  all  the  smaller  seeds  from  it,  deteriora- 
tion in  the  seed  of  this  class  of  crops  would 
be  very  much  less  rapid  than  it  now  is,  and 
a  change  of  seed  would  much  seldomer  be 
required.  The  farmer  who  is  so  careless 
as  to  sow  unclean  seed  of  his  own  raising, 
or  so  foolish  as  to  purchase  unclean  seed 
from  the  seedsman  because  it  can  be  bought 
cheaply  is,  however,  not  likely  to  be  greatly 
concerned  as  to  whether  his  farm  is  clean 
or  is  not  clean. 

5.  Thoroughly  clean  the  thrashing 
machine  before  using  it.  Thrashing 
machines,  especially  if  they  come  from  a 
farm  with  a  reputation  for  uncleanness, 
should  be  carefully  swept  before  being  set 
to  work.  If,  in  addition,  they  are  made 
at  the  first  to  run  empty  for  a  short  time. 


Watch  the  Grain  Screenings.         7; 

and  the  seeds  that  are  caught  in  the  grain 
box  are  destroyed,  the  danger  from  them 
is  even  more  completely  averted.  Because 
of  the  fact  that  thrashing  machines  are 
often  instrumental  in  carrying  weed  seeds 
from  one  locality  to  another,  it  has  often 
been  found  advisable  for  several  farmers  to 
club  together  and  purchase  a  machine  of 
their  own.  For  the  same  reason,  small 
machines  run  by  tread  power  are  some- 
times used  by  individual  farmers.  How- 
ever, these  methods  of  fighting  weeds  have 
obvious  disadvantages  which  will  prevent 
their  general  adoption. 

6.  Give  attention  to  grain  screenings. 
The  chafit*  and  screenings  from  the  fanning 
mill  should  receive  the  most  careful  atten- 
tion. Whenever  weed  seeds  are  suspected, 
the  chaff  from  the  winnowed  grain  that  is 
being  prepared  for  market,  or  indeed  for 
any  other  use,  should  be  burned.  The 
screenings  should  be  ground,  boiled  or 
steamed  before  being  fed ;  or  if  fed  other- 
wise, they  should  be  strewn  on  surfaces 
where  the  weed  seeds  they  contain  are  not 
likely  to  do  any  harm.  The  proportion  of 
weed  seeds  grown  in  a  crop  which  collect 
in  the  screenings  obtained  in  cleaning  it  is 


/S  Weeds. 

relatively  very  large ;  hence  the  opportu- 
nity to  destroy  these  weed  seeds,  when  they 
are  thus  collected,  should  by  no  nieans  be 
neglected. 

7.  Grow  cultivated  crops.  Wherever  it 
is  desired  to  subdue  noxious  weeds  wholly, 
cultivated  crops  should  be  grown  to  the 
greatest  extent  that  is  practicable.  The 
reasons  are  obvious.  The  cultivation  of 
these  crops  gives  opportunity,  at  almost 
every  period  of  the  growing  season,  for 
the  combating  of  almost  every  form 
of  weed  life.  The  working  of  the  soil 
necessary  for  the  production  of  good 
crops  not  only  destroys,  from  time  to 
time,  the  weeds  that  are  growing  in  them, 
but  it  also  stimulates  the  germination  of  the 
weed  seeds  lying  in  the  soil,  so  that  they, 
too,  grow  up  and  are  destroyed  ;  and  in  this 
way  it  greatly  reduces  their  numbers  in  a 
single  season.  Pvlany  farmers  cling  to  the 
opinion  that,  in  the  fight  with  weeds,  cul- 
tivated crops  are  not  very  helpful.  They 
point  to  the  fact  that  they  have  grown  these 
crops  from  year  to  year  on  the  same  fields, 
yet  the  weeds  in  these  very  fields  have 
increased.  This  may  have  been  true,  but 
when  it  has  been  so,  the  crops  have  cer- 


Groiv  Cultivated  Crops.  79 

tainly  not  been  properly  cared  for;  for 
otherwise  the  weeds  would  have  gradually 
decreased,  rather  than  increased.  No  other 
result  could  possibly  follow  where  a  succes- 
sion of  cultivated  crops  had  been  raised, 
in  which  no  weed  had  been  allowed  to  ripen 
its  seeds.  Other  farmers  cling  to  the  opin- 
ion that,  whatever  may  be  the  value  of  cul- 
tivated crops  for  destroying  weeds  in  gen- 
eral, they  are  not  helpful  in  the  fight  with 
creeping  perennials ;  or,  at  least,  that  these 
crops  are  not  so  effective  as  the  bare  fallow 
for  the  destruction  of  creeping  perennials 
in  a  single  season.  This  view  is  a  mistaken 
one.  It  has  arisen,  doubtless,  from  the  too 
conumon  practice  of  staying  the  destructive 
processes  too  early  in  the  season.  Going 
over  the  crop  with  the  hand  hoe  once,  twice, 
or  oftener,  after  horse  cultivation  ceases, 
and  removing  all  stray  weeds  that  may 
appear,  will,  as  a  rule,  make  a  thorough 
job  of  the  work  of  destroying  creeping 
perennials,  except  so  far  as  their  seeds 
remain  in  the  soil.  The  weather  must,  how- 
ever, be  fairly  dry  if  success  is  to  be  com- 
plete. 

It  is  only  too  true  that  where  cultivated 
crops  are  grown,  and  sufficient  attention  is 


8o  Weeds. 

not  given  to  the  work  of  keeping  them  quite 
clean,  their  growth  only  serves  to  encour- 
age the  increase  of  weeds  in  general,  and 
of  creeping  perennials  in  particular.  Their 
cultivation  furnishes  conditions  very  favor- 
able to  the  lateral  extension  of.  the  root- 
stocks  of  creeping  perennials.  It  is  also 
equally  favorable  to  the  development  in 
robust  vigor  of  annuals ;  so  that  it  not  infre- 
quently happens  that  where  a  cultivated 
crop  is  grown,  and  sufficient  care  is  not 
taken  with  it,  these  annual  weeds  perfect 
their  seeds  in  great  numbers,  thus  making 
the  state  of  the  field  at  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son, so  far  as  weed  seeds  are  concerned, 
worse  than  it  was  at  the  beginning.  Where 
cultivated  crops  cannot  be  grown  success- 
fully, that  is,  so  far  as  weed  destruction  is 
concerned,  a  modified  form  of  the  bare  fal- 
low, as  described  farther  on  in  this  chap- 
ter, may  take  their  place. 

8.  Grozv  clover  and  alfalfa.  Where  the 
conditions  are  favorable  to  their  growth, 
the  raising  of  crops  of  clover  and  alfalfa 
will  be  found  helpful  in  the  reduction  of 
weeds ;  and  more  especially  is  this  true  of 
the  common  red  clover.  These  crops  are 
not    only     valuable     in     weed     destruction 


Grow  Clover  and  Alfalfa.  8i 

because  of  the  frequency  with  which  they 
are  generally  cut,  but  also  because  of  their 
"smothering"  tendencies,  especially  on  good 
soil  and  in  suitable  seasons.  Common  red 
clover  may  generally  be  cut  twice  a  year — 
a  process  which  usually  renders  it  impos- 
sible for  perennial  weeds  growing  in  it  to 
ripen  their  seeds  the  same  season.  Alfalfa 
may  generally  be  cut  oftener  than  twice  a 
year.  When  a  luxuriant  growth  is  obtained, 
both  these  crops  tend  to  smother  and 
weaken  the  perennial  weeds  growing  among 
them.  When  these  crops  are  grown  to  be 
cut  for  fodder,  the  ripening  of  annual  and 
biennial  weeds  growing  among  them  is  also 
pretty  effectively  hindered,  but  if  they  are 
allowed  to  mature  their  seeds,  some  kinds 
of  weeds  w^ill  also  ripen  theirs  along  wath 
them. 

Although  alfalfa  is  even  more  valuable 
than  common  red  clover  for  the  purpose 
of  checking  the  ripening  of  weed  seeds, 
owing  to  tlie  greater  frequency  with  which 
it  is  cut,  yet  since  it  can  be  grown  only  on 
certain  kinds  of  soils  its  use  as  an  aid  in 
weed  destruction  is  considerably  circum- 
scribed. Both  crops  are  also  excellent  for 
other  purposes,  as  the  bringing  of  nitrogen 


S2  Weeds. 

to  the  soil  when  they  are  plowed  under, 
and  so  providmg  a  more  abundant  store  of 
this  most  necessary  plant  food ;  hence  much 
attention  may  consistently  be  given  to  grow- 
ing them  for  other  reasons  than  the  service 
which  they  render  in  w^ed  destruction.  It 
may  also  Be  mentioned  that  after  the  last 
cutting  of  these  crops  for  the  season  the 
ground  may  very  profitably  be  gone  over 
with  the  spud  for  the  purpose  of  destroying 
the  creeping  perennials  which  may  then  be 
growing.  This  last  precaution  will  be  found 
to  be  greatly  helpful  in  speedily  completing 
the  w^ork  of  extermination. 

p.  Groi^'  soil i Jig  erops.  In  the  work  of 
eradicating  weeds,  crops  which  are  to  be 
cut  green  for  feed  will  be  found  very  help- 
ful, especially  where  the  other  requirements 
of  the  farm  render  it  advisable  to  grow 
them.  This  is  owing  to  their  smothering 
tendencies;  to  the  fact  that  they  can  be  cut 
before  certain  weeds  which  grow^  in  them 
have  opportunity  to  mature;  and  because 
in  many  instances  two  soiling  crops  can  be 
grown  in  a  single  season,  hence  the  benefits 
derived  from  their  cultivation  can  to  some 
extent  be  duplicated  on  the  same  soil  in 
the   same  year.       As   these  crops  are   not 


Grozu  Soiling  Crops.  83 

designed  to  mature  their  seeds,  they  may 
be  sown  more  thickly  than  other  crops ; 
hence  their  smothering  power  is  greater 
than  if  they  were  grown  for  the  grain  to  be 
obtained  from  them  ;  yet  if  they  are  required 
for  winter  fodder,  they  may  be  allowed  to 
become  so  nearly  ripe  before  being  cut  that 
their  grain  is  mature  enough  to  possess  con- 
siderable feeding  value,  without  allow^ing 
many  of  the  sorts  of  weeds  that  grow 
among  them  to  mature  their  seed.  For 
example,  they  may  be  grown  in  this  way 
and  yet  be  cut  before  such  weeds  as  the 
Canada  thistle  or  the  perennial  sow  thistle 
have  opjX)rtunity  to  ripen  their  seeds ;  hence 
the  cultivation  of  soiling  crops  has  a  ten- 
dency to  weaken  the  vigor  of  these  weeds, 
and  to  prevent  their  further  increase.  Some 
of  the  most  mischievous  annual  weeds  and 
biennial  weeds  may  be  prevented  from 
ripening  their  seeds  in  these  crops ;  in  fact, 
many  of  these  weeds  cannot  possibly  ripen 
their  seeds  if  the  soiling  crop  amid  \vhich 
they  grow  is  properly  looked  after.  Because 
of  the  further  fact  that  frequently  tw^o  soil- 
ing crops  may  be  grov/n  upon  the  same  field 
during  the  same  season,  the  cultivation  of 
these  crops  becomes  an  excellent  means  for 


84  Weeds. 

destroying  a  specially  troublesome  weed  like 
the  Canada  thistle,  whose  habit  leads  it  to 
grow  throughout  the  whole  season,  as  well 
as  such  weeds  as  mature  their  seeds  very 
early  in  the  season,  or  such  as  mature  their 
seeds  very  late;  or,  if  it  be  desirable  to  take 
advantage  of  it,  the  growing  of  an  early 
soiling  crop  gives  opportunity  for  subject- 
ing lands  to  the  fallow  process. 

10.  Call  ill  the  aid  of  sheep.  Those  who 
have  had  experience  in  keeping  sheep  do 
not  need  to  be  told  that  where  sheep  are 
kept  in  sufficient  numbers  some  forms  of 
weed  life  soon  entirely  disappear,  that  other 
forms  are  much  crippled  in  their  powers  of 
growth  and  so  gradually  disappear,  while 
still  other  forms  are  w^eakened  though  they 
may  not  be  entirely  destroyed.  On  pasture 
lands  with  stiff  clay  subsoils,  sheep  will 
eventually  prove  more  than  a  match  for  the 
Canada  thistle,  if  the  pasture  is  at  all  times 
kept  closely  eaten,  but  several  seasons  of 
such  cropping  may  be  required  to  effect  this 
end.  Nearly  all  biennial  weeds  and  some 
perennials  as,  for  example,  the  ox-eye  daisy, 
will  be  greatly  checked  when  thus  pastured  ; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  some  annuals,  as 
ragweed  and  wheat  thief.       If  sheep  are 


Grow  Feeds  at  Home.  85 

thus  allowed  to  act  as  scavengers,  they  will 
render  excellent  service  in  the  work  of  weed 
extermination,  more  especially  in  perma- 
nent pastures,  on  private  roads,  along  fence 
borders,  in  grain  stubble  and  in  corners  and 
waste  places  generally.  In  order  that  this 
work  may  be  done  thoroughly,  the  pastures 
should  be  kept  closely  eaten  from  early 
spring.  Many  weeds  are  then  so  tender  and 
succulent  that  the  sheep  will  eat  them ; 
whereas,  when  the  weeds  are  at  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  growth,  they  will  persis- 
tently reject  them,  unless  they  are  impelled 
to  feed  upon  them  through  the  sheer  force 
of  hunger ;  and  when  weeds  are  thus  kept 
closely  cropped,  the  hand  cutting  or  hand 
spudding  that  may  be  required  to  complete 
their  destruction  is  greatly  reduced.  There 
is  probably  no  way  in  which  weeds  can  so 
profitably  be  used  as  by  turning  them  into 
mutton. 

II.  Grozv  food  supplies  at  home.  To  aim 
to  grow  food  supplies  at  home,  rather  than 
to  purchase  them  elsewhere,  is  a  safe  rule 
in  farming,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
economy,  even  when  the  question  of  weeds 
is  not  taken  into  account  at  all.  It  is  a  rule 
that  is  much  affected  bv  considerations  of 


86  Weeds. 

location,  soil,  climate,  and  other  conditions, 
and  is  therefore  not  without  its  limitations ; 
but  so  important  is  it,  notwithstanding  all 
these  considerations,  that  the  aim  should 
usually  be  to  grow  food  supplies  at  home 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  The  effort 
thus  made  to  increase  production  will  prove 
greatly  advantageous  in  reducing  weeds. 
For  example,  when  corn  is  grown  for  the 
silo  to  be  used  as  winter  fodder,  it  gives 
ample  opportunity  for  checking  those  weeds 
which  may  attempt  to  grow  in  the  corn  ; 
whereas  if  they  grew  among  crops  that  were 
raise-d  for  the  sake  of  the  grain  to  be  sold 
from  them,  they  migiit  not  be  equally  effec- 
tually disturbed  ;  and  it  is  generally  evident 
that  where  food  supplies  are  grown  at 
home,  the  farmer  has  power  to  prevent  the 
weeds  which  grow  in  the  crops  producing 
them  from  ripening  their  seeds,  a  power 
which  he  cannot  possess  when  the  food 
supplies  are  purchased  elsew'here.  It  is 
true  that  the  purchase  of  food  supplies  on 
a  more  or  less  extensive  scale  is  sometimes 
a  necessity,  as  where  dairying  and  the  keep- 
ing of  live  stock  are  largely  engaged  in, 
but  all  grains  so  purchased,  when  the  pres- 
ence of  weed  seeds  in  them   is   suspected, 


Keep  a  Crop  on  the  Land.  87 

should  be  ground  or  steamed  before  being 
fed,  as  was  mentioned  in  Chapter  1\\  Even 
wlien  such  grains  are  fed  to  sheep,  unless 
they  are  ground,  a  portion  of  the  weed  seeds 
contained  in  them  is  sure  to  find  its  w^ay 
into  the  manure,  and  thus  into  the  soil  of 
the  farm.  When  fodders  containing  weed 
seeds  are  purchased,  the  seeds  contained  in 
them  cannot  be  prevented  from  getting  into' 
the  manure  unless  the  fodder  is  cut  and 
steamed,  a  practice  which  is  generally 
impracticable. 

12.  Keep  the  land  constantly  at  work.  In 
the  conflict  with  weeds,  the  land  should  be 
kept  constantly  at  work.  Upon  some  kinds 
of  soil  we  can  easily  get  two  crops  a  year ; 
and  where  this  can  be  done,  the  necessary 
cultivation  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  the 
work  of  destroying  weeds.  The  nature  of 
the  crops  to  be  so  raised  will  naturally 
depend  largely  upon  climate,  soil,  and  the 
requirements  of  the  farm.  As  was  men- 
tioned above  in  section  9,  two  soiling  crops 
may  sometimes  be  grown  the  same  season. 
Again,  an  ordinary  crop  of  grain  or  of 
meadow  may  generally  be  followed  by  a 
catch  crop.  In  many  sections,  rye  may  be 
sown   in  the  autumn,  and  be  followed  the 


88     '  Weeds. 

next  spring  or  summer  by  a  crop  of  corn, 
roots,  or  rape.  When  this  is  done,  the  rye 
may  be  cut  green  or  plowed  under  as  a 
green  crop.  Such  soiHng  crops  as  oats  and 
peas  may  be  grown,  and  be  followed  by 
rape,  turnips,  or  some  other  quick-growing 
crop.  When  the  soiling  crop  has  grown 
vigorously,  and  is  follow^ed  by  one  of  the 
crops  mentioned,  grown  in  drills  and  culti- 
vated, the  effects  in  the  way  of  weed 
destruction  are  very  marked.  As  all  these 
crops  are  of  use  only  for  feeding  stock  on 
the  farm  at  home,  the  process  of  incessant 
cropping,  such  as  we  have  here  described, 
is  helpful  rather  than  otherwise  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  There  is  the  further 
advantage  in  thus  keeping  arable  soils  at 
work,  that  the  nitrates  of  the  soil  are 
largely  prevented  from  being  washed  out 
by  rains. 

7j.  Stimulate  the  land  to  produce  plenti- 
fully. Weeds  can  be  much  more  easily 
dealt  with  when  the  land  is  kept  constantly 
stimulated  to  vigorous  productivity  than 
when  the  soil  is  left  to  run  down  and 
become  infertile  for  lack  of  proper  manur- 
ing. When  crops  are  strong,  weeds  do  but 
little   harm    in   them,    compared    with    the 


Fertilize  Heavily.  89 

injury  they  work  when  they  are  allowed  to 
grow  amid  crops  that  are  thin  and  poor. 
When  the  soil  sustains  a  vigorous  growth, 
the  useful  crops  leave  many  forms  af  weeds 
behind  in  the  race,  especially  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season.  Where  the  growth  is 
vigorous  in  the  early  stages  of  the  crop, 
the  weeds  have  much  less  opportunity  of 
monopolizing  the  growing  area.  Growing 
good  crops  is  synonymous  with  good  farm- 
ing; that  Is,  the  raising  of  good  crops  is  in 
itself  a  great  hindrance  to  the  multiplica- 
tion of  weeds.  This  agrees  with  the  well- 
known  fact  that  the  spread  of  W'Ceds  is  usu- 
ally much  more  rapid  and  complete  in 
impoverished  farms  than  elsewhere,  hence 
those  who  desire  clean  farms  will  have  done 
much  to  secure  the  desired  end  when  they 
adopt  such  measures  as  will  also  maintain 
them  in  a  high  state  of  fertility.  Much 
may  be  done  in  the  w^ay  of  securing  this 
fertility  by  growling  catch  crops  for  feed- 
ing off  or  plowing  under  after  the  earlier 
crops  of  the  season  have  been  removed.  In 
all  localities  wdiere  the  climate  is  not  too 
severe,  peas,  buckwheat,  and  rape  may  all 
be  grown  as  catch  crops.  The  cultivation 
requisite  for  preparing  the  ground  for  these 


90  IVccds. 

crops  is  also  good  for  the  destruction  of 
weeds.  It  may  happen  sometimes  that  the 
season  will  be  so  dry  that  the  seeds  sown 
for  catch  crops  will  not  germinate ;  when 
such  is  the  case,  the  dry  weather  which  pro- 
duces this  result  will  also  be  hurtful  to  the 
growth  of  weeds. 

14.  Practice  autumn  cultivation.  In  the 
war  with  weeds,  one  of  the  very  best  meth- 
ods to  be  adopted  is  "autumn  cultivation." 
It  is  questionable  if  any  other  means  can  be 
made  use  of  that  will  so  well  repay  the  out- 
lay. Autumn  cultivation  means  the  tilling 
of  the  soil  after  harvest  with  a  view  largely 
to  weed  destruction.  As  soon  as  the  crops 
are  removed,  the  land  that  is  not  sown  to 
grass  should  be  plowed.  All  weeds  that 
are  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  that 
time  are  thus  turned  under,  while  the  weed 
seeds  lying  in  the  soil  are  encouraged  to 
germinate.  The  weeds  that  grow  from 
these  may  be  destroyed  by  harrowing  or  by 
cultivating,  or  by  the  late  autumn  plowing 
that  just  precedes  the  advent  of  winter.  In 
this  way  myriads  of  weed  plants  will  be 
got  rid  of  in  a  single  season. 

There  are  two  real  difficulties  which 
stand  in  the  way  :     ( i )  The  season  at  which 


Prevent  Seeding.  91 

this  work  is  to  be  done  is  a  busy  one ;  and 
(2)  there  is  frequently  too  httle  horse  labor 
available  for  the  purpose,  for  the  reason 
that  too  little  is  kept  on  the  farm.  The 
advantages  of  this  method  of  destroying 
weeds  are  so  very  important  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  that  much  effort  should  be 
made  to  secure  them.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  when  catch,  crops  are  grown  for  turn- 
ing under  as  green  manure,  the  necessary 
plowing  after  the  harvest  of  the  main  crop, 
and  the  plowing  under  of  the  green  crop 
for  manure  are  much  the  same  as  would 
be  required  as  autumn  cultivation  for  the 
purpose  mainly  of  destroying  weeds,  while 
if  the  catch  crop  has  been  successful,  there 
is  an  increase  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by 
the  application  of  the  green  manure. 

i^.  Allozv  no  weed  seeds  to  ripen.  We 
should  never  allow  noxious  weeds  to  ripen 
their  seeds,  if  it  is  at  all  in  our  power  to 
prevent  their  doing  so.  When  the  clean- 
ing of  a  farm  that  is  foul  with  weeds  is  first 
undertaken,  it  may  not  always  be  possible 
to  hinder  the  ripening  of  the  seeds  of  the 
weeds  that  infest  it,  but  the  ripening  may 
usually  be  very  largely  prevented  by  modi- 
fying the  rotation  for  a  time.     When  once 


92  Weeds. 

a  farm  is  fairly  well  cleaned,  then  it  is  sim- 
ply inexcusable  to  allow  noxious  weeds — 
at  least  those  which  are  most  troublesome — 
to  mature  their  seeds.  To  allow  them  to 
do  so  is  to  show  an  indifference  to  one's 
best  interests  which  cannot  be  defended. 

The  specific  modes  of  hindering  weeds 
from  ripening  their  seeds  will  of  course 
vary  with  the  particular  weed,  and  also  with 
the  crop  in  which  it  grows.  Several  of 
these  specific  modes  will  be  described  at 
length   in   the    following   chapter. 

As  was  said  above,  one  of  the  best  and 
most  reasonable  means  that  can  be  adopted 
for  preventing  weeds  from  ripening  their 
seeds  is  by  a  modification  of  the  rotation. 
The  correctness  of  this  opinion  will  at  once 
be  apparent  when  we  think,  first,  of  the 
unreasonableness  of  growing  a  crop  a  very 
large  portion  of  which  consists  of  weeds, 
while  we  may  just  as  well  grow  some  other 
crop  that  will  mature  at  a  different  season 
and  be  comparatively  free  from  weeds ; 
and,  second,  that  with  some  crops,  certain 
weeds  cannot  be  prevented  from  ripening 
in  them  without  the  infliction  of  consider- 
able injury  to  the  crop  amid  which  they 
grow.     In  any  case,  however,  the  hope  of 


Gra^e  With  Sheep.  93 

having  a  clean  farm  is  a  vain  one  if  noxious 
weeds  are  allowed  to  ripen  upon  it  even  in 
quantities  ever  so  limited.  If  any  weeds 
are  allowed  to  ripen  their  seeds,  the  farm 
will  never  be  wholly  clean,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  weeds  may  be 
very   considerably  reduced. 

16.  Graze  off  several  crops  in  succession 
with  sheep.  There  is  probably  no  more 
effective  method  of  fighting  weeds,  espe- 
cially annuals,  than  by  growing  two  or  three 
crops  in  succession  the  same  season  and 
grazing  them  down  with  sheep.  To  do  this 
effectively  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  or 
three  fields  or  enclosures,  in  which  there 
can  be  alternation  in  production  and  in  graz- 
ing. The  following  are  among  the  advan- 
tages of  this  method  of  attacking  weeds : 
Germination  is  encouraged  in  the  seeds, 
especially  in  the  seeds  of  annuals  that  may 
be  lying  in  the  soil ;  the  weeds  thus  germi- 
nated are  eaten  by  the  sheep  along  with  the 
other  grazing;  a  very  large  quantity  of 
grazing  relatively  may  thus  be  produced 
from  a  small  area  of  land ;  the  land  is  thus 
put  in  excellent  condition  for  growing  the 
grain  crops  that  will  follow  such  grazing. 
Among  the  crops  best  adapted  to  provide 


94  Weeds. 

such  grazing  are  winter  rye  and  other 
small  grains,  rape,  corn,  and  sorghum.  The 
experience  of  the  author  in  thus  fighting 
weeds  at  the  Minnesota  experiment  station 
was  very  satisfactory. 

//.  Give  careful  attention  to  all  modes  of 
weed  distribution  and  propagation.  It 
was  stated  in  Chapter  IV  that  we  cannot 
control  some  of  the  modes  by  which  weeds 
are  distributed,  that  some  of  them  we  can 
but  partially  control,  and  that  yet  others 
are  completely  under  our  control.  So  many 
and  so  varied  are  the  agencies  by  which 
weeds  come  to  us,  and  so  many  are  the 
means  by  which  they  are  then  propagated, 
that  we  cannot  afford  to  give  small  heed  to 
any  of  these  agencies  and  means.  It  will  not 
suffice  to  concentrate  our  energies  on  keep- 
ing weeds  at  bay  in  one  direction  when  at 
the  same  time  they  come  to  us  in  various 
other  directions.  Such  a  course  would  be 
about  as  wise  as  to  try  to  keep  out  the  wa- 
ters of  a  rising  tide  by  closing  one  breach 
in  the  embankment  while  several  others  are 
left  open.  When  everything  has  been  done 
in  this  direction,  weeds  will  still  come  to 
us.     When   this   is   so,   there   is   only   one 


Make  Thorough  Work.  95 

resource   left   to    us.      This    we    will    now 
describe. 

18.  Make  thorough  zuork.  When  the 
eradication  of  weeds  is  undertaken,  the 
work  should  be  made  as  complete  as  pos- 
sible, and  be  effected  in  the  shortest  possi- 
ble time.  The  cheapness  of  the  process 
is  usually  in  direct  porportion  to  its  com- 
pleteness, and  to  the  brevity  of  the  period 
occupied  in  completing  it.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  destroy  creeping  perennials  in  a 
single  season,  except  only  as  to  the  seeds 
which  remain  in  the  soil.  It  is  the  lack 
of  thoroughness  in  the  modes  usually 
adopted,  rather  than  the  modes  themselves, 
that  renders  the  destruction  of  this  class 
of  weeds  so  extremely  difficult  and  so 
expensive.  As  a  rule,  creeping  perennials 
are  merely  checked  by  the  cleaning  proc- 
esses employed,  and  by  no  means  destroy- 
ed by  them.  Hence  the  root-stocks  left 
in  the  soil  at  once  commence  to  grow. 
They  push  out  in  every  direction.  They 
are  carried  to  and  fro  with  the  plow  and 
spring  into  life  everywhere,  so  that  in  from 
two  to  four  or  five  years  they  have  so 
possessed  the  soil  again  that  a  similar  proc- 
ess   of    reducing    them    will    have    to    be 


g6  Weeds. 

undertaken.  Whereas,  had  these  weeds 
been  completely  destroyed  in  one  season, 
and  proper  means  been  taken  for  remov- 
ing those  which  afterwards  came  up  from 
the  seeds  that  remained  in  the  soil  when 
the  cleaning  process  was  being  accomplish- 
ed, then  the  cleanliness  of  the  field  would 
have  been  maintained,  and  at  a  cost  that 
would  have  been  merely  nominal  as  com- 
pared with  the  cost  involved  in  cleaning 
the  field  anew.  The  greatest  mistake  that 
can  be  made  in  the  war  with  weeds  is  to 
carry  it  on  with  a  lack  of  thoroughness, 
when  once  the  war  has  been  undertaken. 
Men  clean  at  fields  rather  than  clemi  them. 
They  reduce  weeds,  but  do  not  subdue 
them.  To  make  thorough  work  may  seem 
costly  at  the  time,  but  there  is  no  way  of 
getting  rid  of  weeds  so  cheaply  as  when 
the  work  is  done  in  a  comparatively  short 
time. 

ig.  Maintain  cleanliness.  Where  clean- 
liness has  once  been  secured,  it  should  be 
maintained  from  year  to  year  at  all  haz- 
ards. To  effect  this,  two  things  at  least 
are  required.  First,  the  general  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  must  be  good,  so  that 
good  crops  may  ordinarily  be  grown,  and 


Maintain  Cleanliness.  97 

second,  every  portion  of  the  farm  must  be 
gone  over  once*  or  twice  a  year  with  the 
spud,  except  that  part  which  is  devoted  to 
hoed  crops.  The  meadows  should  be  gone 
over  once  or  twice,  according  to  the  weeds 
that  grow  in  them  and  the  time  at  which 
the  hay  is  to  be  cut.  If  thus  gone  over 
before  the  time  of  haymaking,  such  weeds 
as  dock,  the  ox-eye  daisy,  slieep  sorrel,  and 
plantain,  which  would  otherwise  ripen  their 
seeds,  will  be  destroyed,  as  well  as  any  oth- 
er weeds  that  may  be  there.  After  harvest 
they  should  be  gone  over  again  as  often 
as  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off 
the  stray  thistles  or  ragweeds,  or  any  oth- 
er kind  of  weeds  that  may  be  trying  to 
retain  a  footing.  In  the  same  way,  the 
grain  crops  should  be  gone  over  before 
they  head.  Where  these  have  been  sown 
with  the  drill,  this  may  easily  be  done  with- 
out injury  to  the  crops.  If  the  grain  fields 
have  also  been  sown  with  grass  seeds,  they 
should  be  gone  over  again  after  harvest ; 
but  this  will  not  be  necessary  when  autumn 
cultivation  is  to  follow.  Permanent  and 
other  pastures,  fence  borders,  private 
roads,  and  waste  places  should  all  be  gone 
over  twice  a  year  with  the  spud. 


98  Weeds. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  value  of  the 
spud  in  maintaining  cleanliness  on  farms, 
it  must  be  used  with  discrimination.  When 
the  weeds  are  numerous  beyond  a  certain 
limit  it  will  not  pay  to  use  the  spud.  What 
that  limit  is  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
the  scarcity  of  labor,  and  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  securing  it  and  paying  for 
it.  It  is  not  possible  to  fix  a  limit  that  will 
apply  equally  well  in  every  case,  but  in 
the  judgment  of  the  writer,  unless  the 
spudder  can  get  over  from  three  to  five 
acres  a  day,  it  is  at  least  an  open  question 
whether  some  other  mode  of  reducing 
weeds  should  not  be  resorted  to  instead. 
The  spud  is  designed  rather  to  maintain 
cleanliness  than  to  secure  it ;  although,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  it  is  helpful  for  the 
latter  purpose  also. 

The  method  of  procedure  in  cleaning  a 
farm,  where  the  work  is  to  be  economical- 
ly done,  will  be  somewhat  as  follows : 

( I )  The  effort  must  be  put  forth  to  pre- 
vent any  new  seeds  from  maturing  on  the 
farm.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  secure  this 
result  at  first  on  all  parts  of  the  farm, 
owing  to  the  costliness  of  the  work,  and  to 
the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  it ;  in  time, 


Method  of  Cleaning  Farm.  99 

however,  where  judicious  measures  have 
been  used,  the  end  will  be  attained  with- 
out great  difficulty. 

(2)  One  or  two  fields  should  be  set 
aside  each  year  to  be  cleaned,  these  being 
chosen  with  reference  to  the  rotation,  and 
to  the  resources  of  the  farmer,  and  the 
work  of  cleaning  these  fields  should  be 
made  as  thorough  as  it  would  be  reasona- 
bly possible  to  make  it  in  one  season.  As 
each  field  is  thus  freed  from  noxious 
weeds,  cleanliness  should  be  maintamed  in 
that  field  by  the  use  of  the  spud,  until,  in 
the  order  of  the  rotation,  the  field  will  have 
cultivated  crops  grown  upon  it,  by  which 
means  the  cleaning  process  will  be  still 
further  carried  on. 

(3)  The  pastures  and  waste  places  of 
the  farm  sliould,  from  the  commencement 
of  the  cleaning  process,  be  gone  over  twice 
a  year  with  the  spud.  If  it  happens  that  in 
these  places  the  weeds  are  too  numerous 
to  be  dealt  with  by  the  spud,  the  scythe  or 
the  mower  should  be  used  instead.  In  a 
few  seasons,  if  thus  dealt  with,  these  plac- 
es will  be  quite  free  from  noxious  weeds. 
The  time  occupied  in  cleaning  the  farm 
will  depend  upon  the  rotation.     It  should 


loo  Weeds. 

be  practically  free  from  weeds  by  the  end 
of  the  first  rotation,  counting  from  the 
beginning  of  the  undertaking. 

Many  farmers,  however,  look  upon  the 
use  of  the  spud  in  any  way  as  a  chimerical 
idea.  They  object  to  it  on  the  score  of  the 
cost  of  the  labor  involved  in  its  use ;  while 
the  truth,  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  at  least, 
is  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  by 
no  other  conceivable  means  can  freedom 
from  noxious  weed  intrusion  be  maintain- 
ed so  cheaply,  or,  indeed,  be  maintained  at 
all.  The  matter  stands  thus :  In  ordinary 
practice,  the  spud  is  not  used.  The  farmer 
selects  a  field  to  be  cleaned  by  the  bare  fal- 
low or  some  other  process.  Fairly  good 
work  may  be  done ;  but  some  weeds  are 
sure  to  be  left  in  the  soil,  while  also  some 
seeds  of  weeds  lie  there  which  will  ger- 
minate and  reproduce  their  kind  in  abun- 
dance. Unless  the  field  be  gone  over  with 
the  spud  after  the  manner  we  have  here 
described,  it  is  entirely  probable  that  in 
from  three  to  five  years  the  field  will  be  as 
foul  with  weeds  as  when  taken  in  hand  at 
the  first.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  spud 
is  used  in  the  manner  that  we  have  indi- 


Use  of  the  Spud.  loi 

cated,  all  stray  weeds  will  be  cut  off  before 
they  can  do  any  harm. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  freedom  from 
weed  intrusion,  where  once  a  state  of 
cleanliness  has  been  attained,  should  not 
be  more  than  $30  or  $40  a  year  for  every 
one  hundVed  acres  of  land.  This  estimate 
is  based  on  the  supposition  that  all  the 
methods  of  cultivating  and  managing  the 
crops  grown  upon  the  hundred  acres  are 
as  they  ought  to  be. 

With  respect  to  the  cost  of  the  weed- 
cleaning  process,  it  may  be  mentioned  here 
that  when  a  state  of  cleanliness  has  once 
been  secured,  the  cost  of  maintaining  this 
state  of  cleanliness  by  means  of  the  spud 
is  the  only  direct  charge  to  be  made,  for 
the  expense  incurred  in  cleaning  crops  and 
in  destroying  weeds  by  all  the  other  means 
described  in  these  pages  should  be  more 
than  met  by  the  increased  returns  which 
the  crops  will  show  by  reason  of  the 
improved  cultivation  which  the  weed-clean- 
ing process  necessitates.  On  the  assump- 
tion that  every  part  of  a  one  hundred  acre 
farm  be  gone  over  twice  a  year  to  keep 
it  free  from  weeds,  and  on  the  further 
reasonable    assumption    that    the    cost    of 


102  Weeds. 

labor  involved  in  doing  this  for  a  day  of 
ten  hours  is  from  $1.50  to  $2.00,  the  entire 
outlay  for  the  whole  work  would  not  be 
more  than  the  sum  already  named,  $30  to 
$40.  .  When  once  a  farm  has  become  fair- 
ly clean,  a  workman  should  easily  be  able 
to  go  over  it  with  a  spud  at  the  rate  of  ten 
acres  a  day.  That  this  is  possible  has  been 
demonstrated  over  and  over  again,  in  the 
experience  of  the  writer,  in  the  work  of 
cleaning  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Farm  at  Guelph.  Ten  acres 
have  been  frequently  gone  over  in  half  a 
day,  and  in  one  instance  twenty  acres  were 
done,  but  these  results  grew  out  of  more 
than  ordinary  efifort  and  arc  to  be  regarded 
as  exceptional.  One  person  can,  however, 
easily  get  over  ten  acres  in  a  day,  even 
when  some  hundreds  or  even  thousands 
of  weeds  are  to  be  destroyed.  Twenty 
days  thus  employed  should  take  the  spud- 
der  over  the  farm  twice,  hence  the  cost 
would  not  be  more  tlian  the  sum  named. 
The  whole  farm  would  not,  however, 
require  to  be  gone  over  thus  twice  a  year. 
One  field  of  the  farm  would  probably  be 
devoted  to  a  cultivated  crop,  and  v/ould 
not   require  any   spudding.     Several   fields 


Use  of  the  Spud.  103 

which  had  produced  grain  would  not 
require  to  be  gone  over  more  than  once, 
for  the  reason  that  th^y  would  be  plowed 
or  cultivated  soon  after  harvest  as  a  part 
of  the  "autumn  cultivation,"  and  pastures 
would  soon  become  so  clean  that  one  spud- 
ding in  a  season  would  suffice  for  them 
also.  Hence  the  outlay  for  spudding 
should  not  be  more  than  $25  a  year. 

It  is  certainly  unfortunate  that  the  spud 
is  so  little  known,  and  so  little  used  in  per- 
fecting and  maintaining  cleanliness  upon 
farms.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  those 
who  are  most  averse  to  using  the  spud 
are  usually  those  who  have  never  used  it, 
and  that  those  who  have  once  tried  it  fair- 
ly are  always  unwilling  thenceforth  to 
abandon  its  use. 

A  little  reflection  will  make  it  clear  that 
the  spud  is  of  the  greatest  use  in  maintain- 
ing cleanliness  on  a  farm.  Suppose  a  ten- 
acre  field  in  which  a  crop  is  growing  has 
only  a  few  thistles  in  it — so  iew,  perhaps, 
that  the  farmer  thinks  it  scarcely  w^orth 
w^hile  to  do  anything  with  them.  But  it 
may,  at  the  same  time,  have  some  dock 
plants  in  it,  and  a  few  stalks  of  mustard, 
a  small   number  of  ragw^eeds,   and   a   few 


104  Weeds. 


A 


other  noxious  weeds ;  while  in  the 
fence  corners  there  may  be  some 
burdocks  or  cockle  burs.  Now,  in 
one  day,  one  person  can  remove  all 
these  weeds  with  the  spud.  If  this 
be  done,  the  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  seeds  which  these 
plants  would  have  produced  never 
come  into  existence,  and  the  future 
infinite  supply  of  these  weeds  is 
also  effectually  checked.  A  corre- 
sponding saving  in  the  labor  that 
would  otherwise  have  been  ulti- 
mately required  in  subduing  these 
weeds  is  also  effected. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  de- 
scribe that  form  of  the  spud  which 
in  the  estimation  of  the  writer,  is 
best  adapted  to  the  uses  of  the 
farmer.  The  chisel  spud  as  usually 
made,  may  be  described  as  follows : 
It  consists  of  a  light  round  handle, 
resembling  that  of  a  broom,  and  of 
a  blade  which  is  shaped  somewhat 
like  that  of  a  chisel,  but  more  tap- 
ering from  the  end  of  the  blade 
to  the  junction  with  the  handle.    Its     chtd 

Spud 


Use  of  the  Spud.  105 

length  is  about  five  feet  from  the  upper 
end  of  the  handle  to  the  cutting  end  of  the 
blade.  The  blade  is  about  eight  inches  long 
from  the  cutting  end  to  the  shoulder,  and 
about  two  and  half  inches  broad  at  the  cut- 
ting end,  and  five-eighths  of  an  inch  broad 
at  the  shoulder.  The  blade  should  be  thin, 
not  necessarily  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  at  the  shoulder,  and  still  thinner  as 
the  cutting  end  is  approached.  The  blade 
is  fitted  into  the  handle  in  the  same  way 
as  a  common  hoe.  The  implement  is  very 
light,  so  that  it  is  in  no  way  burdensome 
to  carry. 

In  few  kinds  of  labor  on  the  farm  are 
quickness  and  sureness  of  movement  more 
important  than  in  the  use  of  the  spud. 
When  using  the  spud  in  a  grain  crop,  the 
spudder  walks  astride  of  a  row  of  grain, 
the  feet  being  placed  between  the  drills, 
so  that  trampling  is  avoided.  He  walks 
along  the  lines  of  the  drill  in  which  he 
first  enters,  and  cuts  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  all  the  noxious  weeds  that  may 
be  found  within  six  feet  on  either  side  of 
him.  A  strip  is  thus  taken  at  one  time  of 
about  twelve  feet  in  width.    On  the  return 


io6  Weeds. 

trip,  he  walks  in  the  center  of  an  adjoin- 
ing strip  of  equal  width,  and  proceeds  in 
this  manner  until  the  whole  field  is  gone 
over. 

The  spudder  should  always  carry  with 
him  a  short  file,  to  be  used  for  sharpening 
the  spud  whenever  this  may  be  necessary. 
The  frequency  of  the  sharpenings  will 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil;  but  it  is 
greatly  important  that  a  good  cutting  edge 
be  constantly  kept.  The  file  should  never 
be  forgotten,  especially  in  stony  soils,  as 
the  spudder  never  can  know  how  soon  he 
may  want  it. 

Simple  as  the  work  may  appear,  there 
is  great  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
dexterity  in  using  the  spud.  One  person 
will  so  use  it  in  a  grain  field  that  very  lit- 
tle of  the  grain  will  be  either  trampled  upon 
or  cut  off,  whereas  another  would  make 
constant  havoc  in  both  these  respects.  It 
is  matter  for  surprise  how  large  and  strong 
a  weed  root  can  be  severed  by  the  spud 
when  it  is  dexterously  used.  Burdock 
roots  tw^o  inches  in  diameter  may  be  easily 
severed  when  the  spudder  is  well  skilled  in 
his  work. 


Use  of  the  Bare  Falloiv.  107 

MODES   OF    DOUBTFUL    ADVANTAGE. 

Modes  of  destroying  weeds  are  some- 
times widely  practiced  of  which  it  may  be 
said  that,  even  when  all  things  are  consid- 
ered, the  benefits  arising  from  them  are 
of  doubtful  character.  Two  of  these  will 
now  be  dealt  with,  namely,  (i)  the  bare 
fallow;  and  (2)  the  fermentation  of  farm- 
yard or  stable  manure.  Both  of  these  may 
on  occasion  be  made  very  helpful  in  the 
work  of  eradicating  weeds,  but  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  they  both  are  costly 
modes,  and  they  both  can  usually  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

/.  The  hare  fallow.  In  destroying 
weeds,  the  bare  fallow  has  rendered  good 
service  in  the  past,  and  where  it  is  properly 
managed  it  is  a  very  effective  mode,  espe- 
cially for  creeping  perennials. 

Since  the  bare  fallow  method  as  usually 
practiced  requires  the  land  to  lie  unused 
during  the  whole  season  in  "summer  fal- 
low" so  that  a  crop  cannot  be  raised  the 
same  season,  it  is  evident  that  the  method 
is  a  very  expensive  one ;  in  fact,  far  too 
expensive,  when  compared  with  some  of 
the  other  modes  of  fighting  weeds  which 
have   been    previously    treated    of   in   this 


io8  Weeds. 

chapter.  Where  these  other  and  less 
expensive  modes  are  faithfully  practiced, 
it  will  be  unnecessary  to  resort  to  the  bare 
fallow  for  the  purposes  of  weed  destruction. 

When  it  is  thought  necessary  to  resort  to 
the  bare  fallow,  let  it  be  in  some  modified 
form ;  that  is  to  say,  let  some  crop  be  grown 
the  same  season,  before  or  after  the  fallow- 
ing is  done.  When  a  late  crop  is  grown,  as 
one  of  millet  or  of  rape,  during  the  portion 
of  the  season  prior  to  the  sowing  of  that 
crop  the  ground  may  be  fallowed  with 
excellent  results,  both  in  the  destruction  of 
the  weeds  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  the  crop  that  is  to  come  after.  Simi- 
larly, other  crops  which  mature  early  in 
the  season  may  be  followed  by  the  bare  fal- 
low for  the  rest  of  the  season,  and  so 
secure  nearly  all  the  benefits  of  the  ordi- 
nary bare  fallow  without  the  missing  of  a 
crop.  These  early-maturing  crops  include 
rye,  winter  wheat,  and  barley. 

In  the  same  way,  pastures  may  be  eaten 
off  until  some  time  in  June,  and  then  be 
plowed  and  worked  on  the  surface,  with 
great  injury  to  the  weeds,  until  it  is  time 
to  sow  winter  wheat.  The  same  course 
may  be  adopted  with  early-cut  meadows, 


Use  of  the  Bare  Fallozv.  109 

with  almost  equally  good  results.  Where 
winter  wheat  is  not  grown,  the  length  of 
the  season  left  for  working  this  sort  of  fal- 
low is  much  increased,  and  such  a  bare  fal- 
low, coming  after  any  of  the  crops  above 
mentioned,  will  be  very  effective  in 
destroying  weeds.  It  should  be  remarked 
that  this  mode  of  fallowing  so  nearly 
resembles  what  has  been  previously 
described  as  ''autumn  cultivation"  that  it 
may  better  be  referred  to  by  that  designa- 
tion. 

The  costliness  of  the  bare  fallow  does 
not  all  arise  from  the  fact  that  a  great 
amount  of  labor  is  expended  without  get- 
ting a  crop  the  same  season;  especially  in 
seasons  when  much  rain  falls,  there  is  also 
a  serious  loss  incurred  from  nitrates  leach- 
ing out  of  the  soil — a  loss  which  would 
be  almost  entirely  prevented  if  a  crop  were 
grown  upon  the  land.  Inasmuch  as  the 
bare  fallow  reduces  the  humus  in  the  soil, 
the  soil  becomes  more  compact  in  conse- 
quence. The  bare  fallow  entails,  therefore, 
(i)  the  loss  of  a  crop;  (2)  a  certain  loss 
of  fertility  by  reason  of  the  leaching  out 
of  nitrates;  and  (3)  increased  impaction  of 
the  soil.     It  is  obvious,  then,  that  in  our 


i  lo  Weeds. 

fight  with  weeds  we  should  resort  to  the 
bare  fallow  only  in  cases  of  extreme  neces- 
sity. 

Where  the  bare  fallow  is  resorted  to  as 
a  means  of  destroying  weeds,  the  work 
should  be  done  most  thoroughly,  especi- 
ally so  far  as  creeping  perennials  are  con- 
cerned. Where  these  are  only  partially 
destroyed,  the  residue  remaining  in  the  soil 
are  given  most  favorable  conditions  for 
lateral  root  extension,  and  hence  for  future 
multiplication. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  fallow- 
ing process  should,  whenever  possible,  be 
accompanied  by  the  growing  of  green  crops 
for  the  purpose  of  enriching  the  soil  while 
the  process  of  fallowing  is  going  on.  For 
instance,  a  crop  of  rye  may  be  sown  in  the 
autumn  and  plowed  under  the  following 
spring;  this  may  at  once  be  followed  by  a 
crop  of  peas,  buckwheat,  rape  or  some 
other  quick-growing  crop,  which  in  turn 
may  be  plowed  under.  The  weeds  will  be 
greatly  reduced  by  this  modification  of  the 
bare  fallow,  and  the  land  will  at  the  same 
time  be  much  improved  in  fertility  and  in 
its  mechanical   texture. 


Fermenting  Manure.  iii 


i> 


2.  Fermenting  manure.  Where  farm- 
yard or  stable  manure  is  fermented,  the 
process  may  render  substantial  service  in 
destroying  the  germinating  powers  of  the 
weed  seeds  found  in  it,  but  the  price  paid 
is  probably  too  costly.  Manure  cannot  be 
sufficiently  fermented  to  destroy  the  seeds 
of  weeds  present  in  it,  except  with  the 
result  of  the  removal  of  much  of  its  most 
useful  properties,  more  especially  of  the 
nitrogen,  its  most  valuable  constituent. 
The  reduction  of  manure  in  the  soil  where 
it  is  to  remain  is  attended  with  so  many 
advantages  of  a  mechanical  and  chemical 
nature  that,  whenever  practicable,  the 
reducing  process  should  always  be  effected 
there,  rather  than  in  the  farmyard,  or  in 
wasting  heaps  in  the  field. 

Fermenting  manure,  therefore,  with  the 
object  of  destroying  weeds,  should  never 
be  resorted  to  unless  the  seeds  of  some 
especially  troublesome  sorts  are  known  to 
be  present  in  it  in  unusually  large  quanti- 
ties. As  a  rule  it  is  not  necessary  to  resort 
to  the  process  at  all,  for  if  the  modes  of 
fighting  weeds  that  have  been  already 
pointed  out  are  faithfully  practiced,  the 
seeds  that  will  at  lengrth  be  found  in  the 


112  Weeds. 

manure  will  be  reduced  to  an  insignificant 
quantity.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to 
remark  that  on  account  of  the  danger  there 
is  of  bringing  weed  seeds  to  farms  where 
purchased  stable  manure  is  used,  it  may  be 
more  judicious,  where  increased  fertility 
is  desired,  to  purchase  artificial  fertilizers 
rather  than  stable  manure. 


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Physics  of   Agriculture,   net    1.75 

How  to  Make  a  Garden  Pay    1.00 

Soiling  Crops    and   the   Silo    1.50 

Forage   Crops  and  Fibre   Crops  in    America   1.75 

Fertility    of    the    Land,    net    1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 2.00 

Manual    of   Corn   Judging    50 

Cereals     in      America 1.75 

Alfalfa,   Book  of, .   2.00 


CHAPTER   VI. 

SPECIFIC    MODES   OF    ERADICATING    WEEDS    OF 
THE     THISTLE     FAMILY. 

This  chapter  and  those  which  follow  deal 
with  specific  modes  of  destroying  certain 
kinds  of  weeds  which  infest  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States.  Most  of  these 
weeds  are  also  troublesome  in  Canada. 
Some  are  local  in  their  distribution,  while 
others  are  found  in  greater  or  less  numbers 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  While 
the  general  methods  of  weed  destruction 
described  in  the  previous  chapter  are  as  a 
rule  equally  applicable  to  all  weeds,  the 
specific  modes  described  in  this  and  the 
following  chapters  are  especially  helpful 
when  applied  to  the  weeds  for  which  they 
are  intended. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  modes  described,  here  as  especially 
applicable  to  certain  weeds  will  also  apply 
to    all    other    weeds    not    specifically    men- 


114  Weeds. 

tioned  which  may  closely  resemble  these 
in  their  habits  of  growth. 

The  weeds  which  are  dibcussed  in  this 
chapter  are  all  included  in  the  thistle  or 
sunflower  family.  This  is  the  largest  fam- 
ily of  flowering  plants,  including  some  ten 
or  twelve  thousand  species  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  individual  flowers  are 
usually  small  and  inconspicuous.  They  are 
arranged  together  in  considerable  numbers 
in  heads  at  the  ends  of  the  stalks.  These 
heads  are  quite  commonly  regarded  as 
single  flowers,  as  those  of  the  daisy,  the 
dandelion,  or  the  thistle,  but  in  reality  they 
are  made  up  of  a  very  large  number  of 
minute  flowers.  The  family  includes  many 
of  our  most  valuable  economic  and  medic- 
inal plants,  as  well  as  many  of  our  worst 
weeds. 

The  six  weeds  here  discussed  are  among 
the  most  troublesome  to  the  farmer.  They 
are  the  Canada  thistle,  the  perennial  sozo 
thistle,  the  ox-eye  daisy,  the  burdoek,  the 
rag'-ci'eed,  and  the  7cild  lettnce.  The  spe- 
cific modes  here  described  of  dealing  with 
these  weeds  and  those  which  are  discussed 
in  the  chapters  which  follow  are  nearly  all 
based    on    the    actual    experience    of    the 


Description  of  the  Canada  Thistle.  115 

writer;  hence  they  are  submitted  with  a 
degree  of  confidence  which  could  not  be 
felt  were  they  based  merely  on  theories, 
however  correct  these  theories  might  be. 

An  outline  sketch  is  given  of  each  of  the 
weeds  dealt  with.  This'  sketch  was  in 
every  case  prepared  from  living  specimens 
of  the  weed  illustrated.  The  root  develop- 
ment of  each  plant  is  shown,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  portion  above  ground.  In  the  work 
of  exterminating  weeds,  a  knowledge  of 
their  habits  of  root  growth  is  frequently 
of  quite  as  much  importance  as  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  growth  habits  of  the  portions 
of  the  plant  ordinarily  visible  to  the  eye. 

(l)     THE    CANADA    THISTLE. 

The  Canada  thistle  (Carduus  arvensis) 
is  a  creeping  perennial  which  grows  from 
one  to  four  feet  high,  according  as  soils 
and  seasons  vary.  It  is  of  an  upright  habit 
of  growth,  somewhat  branched  towards 
the  top,  especially  when  it  is  not  much 
crowded,  but  when  it  is  pressed  for  room 
it  has  but  a  single  stem.  Its  leaves  are 
armed  with  sharp  prickles,  which,  either 
when  green  or  dry,  but  more  especially 
when  dry,  are  exceedingly  unpleasant  to 
handle.  Its  blossoms  are  of  a  beautiful 
crimson,  and  have  a  pleasing  fragrance. 


ii6  Weeds. 

The  Canada  thistle  comes  up  early  in 
May,  and  continues  to  grow  until  the  time 
of  severe  frost  in  autumn.  It  comes  into 
blossom  in  July  and  August,  and  matures 
its  seeds  principally  in  the  latter  month, 
but  sometimes  also  in  the  former.  When 
cut  off  above  or  just  a  little  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  it  will  at  once  put  forth 
sprouts  below  the  point  of  excision,  several 
sprouts  thus  coming  up  around  the  parent 
stem. 

The  Canada  thistle  will  grow  in  almost 
all  kinds  of  soils,  but  it  docs  not  find  a  con- 
genial home  in  mucks  with  moist  bottoms. 
It  grows  in  all  kinds  of  crops  that  are  pro- 
duced in  this  country.  Its  seeds  ripen  with 
those  of  all  the  cereals,  several  of  the  clo- 
vers, and  timothy  and  some  other  grasses. 

The  Canada  thistle  is  propagated  by 
means  both  of  its  seeds  and  of  its  creeping 
root-stocks,  but  more  especially  by  means 
of  the  latten?  Its  root-stocks  penetrate  the 
soil  in  every  direction,  and  in  open  soils  to 
distances  that  are  almost  incredible.  These 
root-stocks  bear  numerous  latent  buds, 
which,  as  soon  as  the  root-stocks  become 
broken,  at  once  start  to  grow,  even  under 


Description  of  the  Canada  Thistle.  117 

the  least  favorable  conditions.  Its  seeds 
are  not  only  carried  incredible  distances  by 
the  wind,  but  they  are  also  distributed 
everywhere  by  means  of  the  seeds  of  all 
kinds  of  cereal  grains  and  of  several  of  the 


THE  CANADA   THISTLE. 


clovers  and  grasses,  among  which  they 
ripen.  They  are  also  distributed  by  means 
of  manure. 


ii8  Weeds. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
effective  modes  of  dealing  with  tliis  most 
pernicious  weed : 

1.  Modifying  the  rotation.  Until  the 
fields  infested  with  the  thistle  can  be  spe- 
cifically dealt  with  by  one  of  the  modes 
described  below,  drop  out  of  the  rotation, 
so  far  as  practicable,  all  crops  which  will 
allow  the  thistle  seeds  to  ripen  before  they 
can  be  cut. 

2.  Autumn  plozuing  and  spring  cultiva- 
tion, foUoived  by  corn  or  some  other  culti- 
vated crop.  Plow  the  land  immediately 
after  harvest.  Plow  shallow  with  any  kind 
of  plow  that  will  cut  the  thistles  off  clean 
ivithout  breaking  up  the  creeping  root- 
stocks.  Keep  the  thistles  from  showing 
above  ground  until  the  late  autumn  plow- 
ing, which  should  be  deep  for  the  sake  of 
the  crop  that  is  to  come  after.  In  the 
spring,  keep  the  thistles  under  by  the  use 
of  a  suitable  cultivator  until  the  time  for 
planting  the  cultivated  crop.  Give  this 
crop  sufficient  cultivation  to  insure  a  good 
yield,  and  take  pains  to  keep  the  thistles 
that  spring  up  in  the  line  of  the  rows  cut 


Eradication  of  the  Canada  Thistle.   119 

off  by  hand  hoeing.  Go  over  the  crop  with 
the  hand  hoe,  if  necessary,  once  or  twice 
after  the  horse  cultivation  has  ceased;  and, 
if  the  work  up  to  this  point  has  been  well 
done,  there  should  not  be  one  thistle  left, 
provided  the  season  has  been  a  dry  one. 
The  most  effective  part  of  the  work,  how- 
ever, will  have  been  done  the  preceding 
autumn. 

J.  August  ploi^nng,  follozccd  by  zvintcr 
rye  cut  early,  and  this  agaiji  by  a  cultivated 
crop.  Plow  the  ground  deeply  in  August, 
as  early  in  the  month  as  practicable.  Sow 
rye  early  in  September  at  the  rate  of  two 
and  one-half  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  Cut 
the  rye  the  following  spring,  as  soon  as 
it  is  headed  out,  for  soiling  or  for  winter 
fodder.  Then  plow  the  ground  deeply  with 
any  kind  of  plow  that  will  effectively  bury 
the  stubble,  and  harrow  at  once  to  conserve 
the  moisture.  Harrow  once  a  week  until 
it  is  time  to  drill  the  ground  for  rape  or 
some  other  quick-growing  cultivated  crop. 
Then  cuftivate  and  care  for  the  crop  as 
described  in  section  2  above.  In  the  experi- 
ence of  the  writer,  this  mode  of  destroying 
the  Canada  thistle  has  proved  very  effec- 
tive, but  it  is  not  well  suited  to  stiff  soils 


I20  Weeds. 

which  will  not  readily  grow  cuUivated 
crops. 

Another  way  is  to  sow  the  rye  in 
August,  and  then  pasture  it  both  autumn 
and  spring,  before  the  ground  is  plowed 
for  the  following  crop.  This  mode  is  not 
quite  so  effective  as  the  one  just  described, 
inasmuch  as  the  rye  when  pastured  does 
not  so  effectually  weaken  the  thistles  by 
smothering  them  as  when  it  is  grown  for 
fodder  or  for  the  silo. 

On  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
Experiment  Station  farm  at  Guelph,  this- 
tle-infested fields  have  been  so  effectively 
cleaned  by  the  mode  of  treatment  recom- 
mended here  that  in  the  following  year  one 
person  could  go  over  twenty  acres  in  from 
ten  to  fifteen  hours,  and  remove  with  a 
spud  all  the  noxious  weeds  found  in  the 
grain  crop  which   followed  the  rape. 

4.  Breaking  up  pasture  land  or  meadoiv 
and  sowing  to  fall  zvlieat  and  clover.  Plow 
pasture  land  in  June,  or  plow  land  from 
which  a  crop  of  hay  has  been  removed,  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  crop  has  been 
harvested.  Work  the  plowed  ground  upon 
the  surface,  so  that  all  thistles  will  be  kept 
under    until   the   time   arrives   for    sowing 


Emdication  of  the  Canada  Thistle.  121 

winter  wheat.  In  the  spring,  sow  clover 
in  the  wheat  crop,  and  after  one,  two,  or 
three  crops  of  clover  have  been  grown 
repeat  the  same  rotation.  This  method  is 
applicable  to  stifif  soils  where  v/inter  wheat 
is  a  leading  crop,  and  is  especially  success- 
ful where  the  land  first  broken  up  was 
clover  sod.  In  localities  where  winter 
wheat  will  not  grow,  substitute  for  the  win- 
ter wheat  either  spring  wheat  or  barley, 
as  may  be  desired.  There  \\\\\  then  be 
ample  time  for  autumn  cultivation  after  the 
sod  land  has  been  broken  up ;  if  this  time  is 
well  employed,  a  great  gain  in  the  conflict 
wMth  the  thistles  will  have  been  effected. 

5.  Smothering  by  a  clover  crop,  ivith  a 
cultivated  crop  foUozuing.  Where  land  has 
been  sown  to  clover,  cut  the  crop  twice  for 
hay,  or  once  for  hay  and  once  for  seed. 
Then  follow  with  a  properly  cultivated 
corn  or  root  crop.  The  smothering  influ- 
ence of  the  two  growths  of  clover,  com- 
bined wMth  the  efTect  of  the  two  cuttings 
necessitated,  will  be  found  of  much  service 
in  w^eakening  the  thistles. 

6.  Using  the  spud.  When  the  thistles 
have  been  well  brought  under,  they  should 
be  kept  under  by  the  use  of  the  spud.    The 


122  Weeds. 

grain  fields  should  be  gone  over  before 
harvest  to  prevent  the  thistles  from  blos- 
soming, and  the  meadows  and  fields  sown 
with  grasses  should  be  similarly  dealt  with 
after  harvest.  To  spud  thistles  before  their 
blossoming  season  will  not  in  itself  be 
found  of  much  service  in  destroying  them  ; 
but  when  they  are  cut  with  the  spud  an 
inch  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the  soil 
at  that  stage  of  their  development,  and  are 
again  cut  in  the  same  way  later  on,  the 
effects  as  regards  tlieir  destruction  are  very 
beneficial.  In  the  experience  of  the  writer, 
when  thistles  have  been  thus  cut  two  or 
three  times  a  year,  they  have  been  found 
to  disappear  entirely  from  pastures,  fence 
borders,  lanes,  and  waste-places  generally. 

y.  Removing  thistles  from  permanent 
pastures.  In  removing  thistles  from  per- 
manent pastures,  our  mode  of  procedure 
must  be  governed  largely  by  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  subsoil.  In  stifif  clays,  two 
or  three  mowings  a  year  for  as  many  years 
will  cause  them  to  disappear,  but  on  lands 
with  open  subsoils  the  spud  will  also  have 
to  be  resorted  to. 

Observation.  The  facts  relating  to  an 
experiment    in    removing    Canada    thistles 


Eradication  of  the  Canada  Thistle.   123 

and  other  noxious  weeds  from  a  perma- 
nent pasture  in  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  Experiment  Station  farm  at 
Guelph  may  prove  interesting.  The  field 
contained  twenty  acres,  and  had  been  for 
several  years  in  permanent  pasture,  and 
was  badly  smitten.  The  experiment  com- 
menced in  the  summer  of  1889,  and  the 
work  was  superintended  by  the  writer,  who 
also  took  part  in  it.  The  facts,  as  given 
in  the  annual  report  of  the  station  for  189 1, 
p.  50,  are  as  follows :  "The  first  spudding 
in  1889  took  fully  100  hours  of  one  per- 
son. The  second  si)udding  took  80  hours. 
In  1890  the  first  spudding  was  done  on  July 
9th  and  loth,  and  took  40  hours.  The  sec- 
ond spudding  was  done  from  August  26th 
to  September  7th,  and  took  ^2  hours.  In 
1891  the  first  spudding  w^as  done  on  July 
1 8th,  and  took  7  hours.  The  second  spud- 
ding was  done  on  about  the  last  day  of 
September,  and  took  6  hours.  The  cost  of 
cleaning  the  field — for  it  is  now  clean — was 
$22.50  in  1889,  $9.00  in  1890,  and  $i.62>^ 
in  1891  ;  or  a  total,  for  the  three  years,  of 
$33.i2j/<  for  the  20  acres.  The  labor  was 
valued  at  $1.25  per  day  of  10  hours,  with- 
out board."     The  annual  cost  of  maintain- 


124  Weeds. 

ing  cleanliness  in  this  field,  so  long  as  it 
remains  a  pasture,  should  not  be  more 
than  $2.50. 

(2)    THE   sow   THISTLE. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  sow 
thistle,  but  some  of  them  do  not  give  much 
trouble  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil,  and 
it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose  here  to 
speak  only  of  the  variety  known  as  the 
perennial  or  corn  sow  thistle  {Sonchns 
arvcnsisy,  as  it  is  the  only  form  of  this  weed 
which  is  very  difficult  to  eradicate.  The 
corn  sow  thistle  is  a  creeping  perennial, 
while  nearly  all  the  other  varieties  of  the 
sow  thistle  are  annuals.  The  plant  has  an 
upright  habit  of  growth,  and  grows  from 
one  to  three  feet  high,  but  when  the  soil 
is  quite  congenial  it  sometimes  reaches  a 
greater  height.  Like  the  Canada  thistle, 
the  perennial  sow  thistle  is  somewhat 
branched  towards  the  top.  Its  stems  are 
rather  hairy  or  bristly,  especially  its  flower 
stems ;  they  are  hollow,  and  when  bruised 
a  milky  fluid  exudes  from  them.  The 
prickles  upon  its  leaves  are  harmless.  Its 
blossoms  are  yellow,  and  the  plants  are 
great   producers  of   seed. 


Description  of  the  Sozv  Thistle.     125 

The  perennial  sow  thistle  makes  its 
appearance  in  May,  and  continues  to  grow 
until  the  autumn.  It  blossoms  in  July, 
and  ripens  its  seeds  in  July  and  August. 
It  will  grow  in  any  kind  of  soil,  but  it  is 


THE  PERENNIAL  SOW  THISTLE 

most   at   home    in    rich   moist   loams,   and 
gives  least  trouble  in  stiff  clays. 

The  perennial  sow  thistle,  Hke  the  Can- 
ada thistle,  infests  all  kinds  of  crops,  and 
it  ripens  its  seeds  somewhat  earlier  than, 
or  simultaneously  with,  tlie  crops  amid 
which  it  grows ;  the  only  crops  of  which 


126  Weeds. 

this  statement  is  not  true  being,  probably, 
red  clover  and  alfalfa. 

It  is  propagated  by  means  of  its  seeds, 
which  are  able  to  float  about  in  the  air  by 
reason  of  the  downy  attachment  which 
they  possess.  As  its  seeds  are  very  numer- 
ous, its  numbers  increase  very  rapidly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  any  place  where  once 
they  are  allowed  to  ripen.  It  is  an  open 
question  if  they  have  the  power  of  sus- 
taining a  long  flight,  like  the  seeds  of  the 
Canada  thistle.  The  perennial  sow  thistle 
is  also  propagated  with  much  rapidity  by 
means  of  its  root-stocks,  which  are  numer- 
ous and  which,  like  those  of  the  Canada 
thistle,  are  "creepers"  bearing  a  very  large 
number  of  latent  buds,  as  is  shown  in  the 
sketch.  Its  seeds,  like  those  of  the  Can- 
ada thistle,  are  constantly  being  widely 
distributed  by  being  carried  about  with  the 
seeds  of  cereals,  clovers,  and  grasses. 

Modes  of  Eradieation. 

The  means  to  be  taken  for  destroying 
this  intruder  are  essentially  the  same  as 
those  'described  for  the  eradication  of  the 
Canada  thistle,  and  therefore  need  not  be 
repeated  here. 


Description  of  the  Ox-eye  Daisy.    127 

(3)    THE  OX-EYE  DAIS/. 

The  ox-eye  daisy  {Chrysanthemum  leu- 
canthemum)  is  a  simple  perennial  with  a 
branching  habit  of  growth.  It  grows  from 
one  to  two  feet  high,  according  to  soil  and 
crop  conditions,  but  usually  it  does  not  grow 
much  more  than  one  foot  in  height.  It  pro- 
duces large  flowers,  consisting  of  a  yellow 
disc  bordered  with  white  rays.  The  fan- 
cied resemblance  of  the  disc  in  the  center 
to  the  eye  of  an  ox  has  probably  given  rise 
to  the  name.  The  flowers,  sometimes  called 
"Marguerites,"  have  been  much  in  favor  for 
bouquets  during  recent  years.  The  plant, 
however,  is  none  the  less  a  pestilent  weed. 
It  is  a  great  producer  of  seed. 

The  ox-eye  daisy  is  very  hardy.  It  can 
resist  in  a  marked  degree  the  influences  of 
lieat,  cold,  and  drought.  It  commences  to 
blossom  in  May  or  June,  according  to  the 
locality,  and  under  some  conditions  it  will 
continue  to  blossom  as  late  as  September. 
The  seeds  have,  in  an  uncommon  degree, 
the  power  of  maturing  on  the  stalk,  even 
when  the  stalks  have  been  pulled  out  of  the 
ground  or  cut  off  from  their  roots  before 
the  seeds  are  quite  ripe,  and  they  also  pos- 


128  Weeds. 

sess  great  vitality.  Although  the  plants 
may  appear  but  singly  at  first,  yet  if  they 
are  allowed  to  ripen  their  seeds,  these  fall 
to  the  ground  and  grow  up  again  so  thickly 
that  to  eradicate  the  weed  by  spudding  is 
almost  impossible.  Hence,  in  pastures  and 
waste  places  where  cultivation  cannot  be 
introduced,  the  ox-eye  daisy  is  an  extremely 
difficult  weed  to  deal  with.  It  is  not  relished 
by  live  stock,  owing  in  part  to  the  woody 
nature  of  its  growth,  but  they  will  browse 
on  it  to  some  extent  when  it  is  young. 

The  ox-eye  daisy  grows  in  all  soils,  but 
is  most  vigorous  and  troublesome  in  those 
of  loose  texture.  It  infests  all  kinds  of 
crops,  and  it  also  grows  where  the  land  is 
not  cultivated,  as  in  permanent  pastures, 
and  in  waste  places  generally.  It  is  most 
difficult  of  eradication  in  permanent  pas- 
tures and  meadows,  more  especially  as  these 
grow  older,  since  the  roots  of  the  daisies 
then  become  much  interlaced  with  those  of 
the  crops  amid  which  they  grow.  It  is  least 
troublesome  in  cultivated  crops,  and  these 
are  very  effective  in  destroying  it. 

This  weed  is  distributed  entirely  by 
means  of  its  seed.  It  is  most  commonly 
carried  about  in  the  seeds  of  timothy  and 


Description  of  the  Ox-eye  Daisy.    129 

some  kinds  of  clover,  but  it  is  also  distrib- 
uted   through    the    agency    of    the    cereal 


THE  OX-EYE  DAISY. 


grains.  It  is  often  taken  from  field  to  field 
on  the  farm  in  the  manure,  and  is  also  car- 
ried about  to  some  extent  by  birds. 


130  Weeds. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  ei  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  the  ox-eye  daisy: 

1.  Modifying  the  rotation.  Drop  meadow 
out  of  the  rotation  until  the  infested  fields 
have  been  dealt  with. 

2.  August  plozving,  follozved  by  zvinjer 
rye  cut  early,  and  this  again  by  a  cultivated 
crop.  Grow  a  crop  of  rye  followed  by  a 
cultivated  crop,  as  described  in  section  3 
above,  wdiere  we  treated  of  the  methods  of 
destroying  the  Canada  thistle.  The  plow- 
ing in  June  will  turn  under  the  daisies  that 
may  have  been  in  the  rye,  and  the  stirring 
of  the  soil  necessary  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  crop  will  be  favorable  to  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seeds  of  the  weed  that  may  be 
lying  in  the  soil  dormant. 

J.  Plozving  up  ineadozv  land  and  plant- 
ing to  a  cultivated  crop.  In  the  case  of 
meadow  land  which  is  infested  wit-h  the 
wee\i,  pasture  it  until  the  middle  of  June ; 
then  plow  it  deeply  and  plant  to  some  culti- 
vated crop,  taking  pains  to  cultivate  it  with 
sufficient  care.  The  daisies  are  thus  turned 
under  before  they  have  had  an  opportunity 


Eradication  of  the  Ox-eye  Daisy.  131 

to  ripen  their  seeds.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
grow  a  crop  of  corn  or  of  roots  the  follow- 
ing year  in  order  to  complete  the  work. 

4.  After-harvest  and  autumn  cultivation, 
follozved  by  spring  cultivation  and  a  cul- 
tivated crop.  V\o\\  the  infested  field  lightly 
after  harvest,  and  then  again  deeply  just 
before  winter.  In  the  interval  give  the 
soil  one  or  more  harrowings  to  induce  the 
daisy  seeds  to  germinate.  In  the  spring, 
follow  this  preparation  with  a  cultivated 
crop,  and  this,  if  necessary,  next  year,  by 
another   cultivated   crop. 

5.  Solving  to  rye  for  pasture  or  hay, 
foUoiving  by  millet,  or  bare  fallozv  and 
ivinter  zvheat.  Sow  the  infested  field  with 
rye,  and  pasture  the  rye  until  June,  or  cut 
it  for  hay.  Follow^  the  rye  with  a  crop  of 
millet;  or,  if  thought  best,  work  the 
ground  on  the  bare  fallow  system  until 
winter  wdieat  may  be  sown  in  September. 
Where  it  may  not  be  desired  to  grow  win- 
ter wheat,  the  occasional  stirring  of  the 
soil  should  be  continued  until  the  close  of 
the  season,  that  the  w^eed  seeds  lying  in  the 
soil  may  be  made  to  germinate.  Then 
next  season  some  kind  of  spring  cereal  may 
be  grown. 


132  Weeds. 

6.  Growing  a  cultivated  crop  and  fol- 
lowing by  a  grain  crop  soivn  to  meadow. 
If  a  cultivated  crop  is  grown  with  a  view 
to  the  destruction  of  the  weed,  then  it 
should  be  followed  by  a  grain  crop,  which 
should  also  be  sown  with  clover,  or  clover 
and  grass.  The  grain  crop  should  then  be 
gone  over  with  the  spud,  and  any  daisies 
found  in  it  be  cut  off.  Spudding  will  prob- 
ably be  necessary  in  the  meadow  which  fol- 
lows the  grain  crop,  more  especially  during 
the  first  year  of  its  growth.  The  best  time 
for  spudding  the  ox-eye  daisy  is  when  it 
is  in  blossom,  as  at  that  time  the  weeds  are 
very  easily  seen. 

When  spudding  the  ox-eye  daisy,  it  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  catch  the  plant 
with  the  hand  and  strike  it  over  the  spud 
handle  to  free  the  adherent  earth  from  the 
fibrous  roots  of  the  weed  which  have  been 
cut  off  with  it. 

7.  In  permanent  pastures,  etc.  Wher- 
ever practicable  pasture-lands  that  are 
infested  with  ox-eye  daisy  should  be  broken 
up  and  dealt  with  in  one  or  other  of  the 
methods  described  above.  In  pasture- 
lands  which  cannot  be  cultivated  and  there- 
fore must  remain  permanent,  along  fence 


Description  of  the  Bur  doc}?.        133 

borders,  on  the  sides  of  roads,  and  in  waste 
places  generally,  it  is  difficult  indeed  to 
deal  with  this  pest.  Any  plan  that  will 
prevent  it  from  maturing  its  seeds  will  in 
time  prove  effectual,  but  several  years  will 
probably  elapse  before  the  weed  will  be 
fully  banished  from  such  places. 

(4)    THE  BURDOCK. 

The  burdock  (Arctium  lappa)  is  so  well 
known  and  so  easily  managed,  if  the  work 
of  destroying  it  is  gone  about  properly, 
that  it  would  seem  almost  superfluous  to 
write  about  the  modes  that  will  prove  effect- 
ive for  its  extermination,  yet  there  is  no 
denying  the  fact  that  the  burdock  is  one 
of  the  most  general  of  the  weed  abomina- 
tions which  disgrace  the  farms  of  today. 
It  is  a  biennial,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
very  large  even  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
growth  of  the  plant.  Its  seed  is  borne  on 
a  branched  stem,  which  pushes  up  from 
amid  the  center  of  the  leaves  to  a  height 
of  from  two  to  five  feet.  The  first  year 
of  its  growth,  the  burdock,  being  a  bien- 
nial, does  not  produce  any  seeds,  but  in  the 
second  year  it  produces  them  in  immense 
numbers.       The     seeds     are     matured     in 


134 


Weeds. 


enclosures  at  the  end  of  the  branches  of 
the  stems.  The  seed  sacs,  circular  in 
shape,  are  so  armed  with  hooks  that  they 
adhere  to  almost  everything  with  which 
thev  come  in  contact.     Hence  we  find  them 


THE  BURDOCK. 

The  large  plant  in  the  sketch  represents  the  burdock  in   the  dead 

state,  after  it  has  perfected  its  growth. 

clinging  in  large  numbers  to  the  hair  of 
horses  and  cattle  that  pasture  where  they 
grow,  and  also  to  the  wool  of  sheep,  which 
they  oftentimes  render  practically  valueless. 


Description  of  the  Burdock.        135 

The  burdock  sends  a  strong  tap  root 
down  into  the  soil  wherever  the  natural  or 
artificial  drainage  is  good,  hence  it  does  not 
suffer  readily  from  dry  weather.  The  root 
as  shown  in  the  sketch  is  broken  off.  The 
burdock  comes  into  flower  chiefly  in  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  but  more  espe- 
cially in  the  latter  month.  If  cut  off  above 
the  crown,  even  after  the  seed  pods  are 
formed,  young  shoots  will  be  thrown  up 
around  the  parent  stem,  and  seed  be 
matured  sometimes  within  a  few  inches  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  even  many 
weeks  after  the  harvest  season  is  over. 
It  is  forgetfulness  of  this  fact,  more  than 
anything  else,  which  allows  this  plant  so 
long  to  retain  its  hold  in  our  fields. 

The  burdock  will  grow  in  nearly  all  soils 
that  are  free  from  ground  water.  No  other 
weed,  perhaps,  is  found  in  so  many  of  the 
provinces  and  states  of  our  continent.  It 
is  pre-eminently  the  weed  of  the  outlying 
and  neglected  portions  of  cities,  towns  and 
villages,  and  it  is  much  prone  to  intrench 
itself  along  the  fence  borders  and  in  the 
waste  places  of  the  farm,  but  it  does  not 
give  much  trouble  where  the  soil  is  well 
cultivated. 


136  Weeds. 

The  burdock  is  propagated  solely  by 
means  of  its  seed,  which  is  possessed  of 
much  vitality.  It  is  very  generally  distrib- 
uted through  the  agency  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, to  the  hair  and  wool  of  which  its 
seeds  most  readily  adhere.  If  a  burdock 
plant  is  left  undisturbed,  so  that  its  seeds 
ripen  upon  its  stems,  it  sheds  them  upon 
the  ground  about  it,  and  there  they  will 
continue  to  give  trouble  for  years  after. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  the  burdock : 

/.  In  cultivated  fields.  Where  the  bur- 
dock is  found  in  cultivated  fields,  it  will  of 
course  be  cut  off  with  the  hay  or  grain 
amid  which  it  grows.  When  thus  cut 
during  the  first  year  of  its  growth,  the 
plant  is  but  little  injured,  and  when  mowed 
off  during  the  second  year  it  at  once  pushes 
up  fresh  stems  and  ripens  its  seeds  in  great 
numbers,  as  already  mentioned.  Although 
the  farmer  may  not  notice  this,  the  ripened 
burs  will  not  fail  to  find  lodgment  in  the 
hair  of  his  cattle  and  the  wool  of  his  sheep 
when    they    feed    upon    the    aftermath    or 


Description    of    Wild   Lettuce.      137 

gleanings.  The  only  way  to  prevent  this 
late  ripening  of  the  seeds  is  to  go  over  the 
fields  once  or  twice  after  the  harvest  is 
over,  and  cut  off  with  the  spud  all  plants 
that  seem  likely  to  produce  seed  that  season. 
2.  In  pennanent  pastures,  waste  places, 
lanes,  etc.  In  permanent  pastures,  and  along 
fences,  in  lanes,  and  around  the  corners  or 
farm  buildings,  and  in  the  borders  of  wood- 
lands, the  plants  must  be  destroyed  by  the 
use  of  the  spud.  In  cutting  them,  however, 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  strike  them 
below  the  crown.  If  this  be  done  the  plants 
-will  die,  no  matter  what  their  previous 
growth  may  have  been.  The  spudding  may 
be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the 
ground  is  not  frozen,  but  during  the  second 
year  the  cutting  must,  of  course,  take  place 
before  the  plants  form  their  seeds.  A  few 
years  -of  this  persistent  spudding  will  soon 
get  to  the  last  of  them.  Farmers  who  go 
over  their  fields  twice  a  year  with  the  spud 
will  not  long  be  troubled  with  burdocks. 

(5)    WILD   LETTUCE. 

The  various  species  of  wild  lettuce  (Lac- 
tuca  virosa,  Lactuca  scariola,  and  related 
species)    are    annuals    or    biennials.      The 


138  Weeds, 

most  troublesome  of  them  (L.  virosa) 
appears  first  to  have  obtained  a  foothold  on 
this  continent  in  the  Atlantic  states,  but 
has  traveled  v^estward  at  a  rapid  rate.  It 
is  now  common  in  many  sections  of  the 
United  States.  The  branches  are  numerous, 
and  on  good  soils  strong  plants  will  attain 
the  height  of  from  5  to  6  feet,  but  on  ordi- 
nary soils  the  average  height  will  not  be 
more  than  3  feet.  The  blossoms  are  a  pale 
yellow,  and  a  vigorous  plant  is  capable  of 
bearing  from  8,000  to  10,000  seeds.  The 
seeds  are  provided  with  a  downy  attach- 
ment which  enables  them  to  float  in  the  air, 
hence  they  may  be  carried  by  the  winds  to 
almost  any  distance. 

Wild  lettuce  comes  up  early  rather  than 
late  in  the  season.  It  matures  its  seeds  in 
midsummer.  If  the  plants  are  cut  out 
before  they  have  reached  the  blooming  stage 
they  will  at  once  send  up  other  branches 
which  in  turn  will  produce  seeds.  Horses 
and  cattle  will  crop  it  off  to  some  extent  in 
pasture,  but  they  are  not  fond  of  it. 

Wild  lettuce  will  grow  on  various  soils, 
but  rich  loams  sustam  it  in  best  form.  It 
does  not  give  much  trouble  in  grain  crops 
or   cultivated   crops,   but   grows    freely    in 


Description    of    Wild   Lettuce.      139 


WILD  LETTUCE. 


I40  Weeds. 

meadows  and  pastures,  on  road  sides,  along 
fence  borders  and  in  other  waste  places. 

Wind  is  the  principal  agent  in  distribut- 
ing the  seeds  of  wild  lettuce,  but  the  seeds 
may  also  be  distributed  along  with  those  of 
clover  and   some  of  the   grasses. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradi- 
cation that  have  been  found  most  success- 
ful   in    dealing   with    wild    lettuce : 

1.  Modifying  the  rotation.  Drop  meadow 
and  pasture  out  of  the  rotation  for  a  time 
and  grow  cultivated  crops.  This  will  only 
be  necessary  with  fields  infested  with  the 
weed. 

2.  Mozving  and  spudding.  Cut  the 
plants  off  with  the  scythe  or  mower  with 
sufficient  frequency  to  prevent  them  from 
maturing  seeds.  When  they  are  not  numer-- 
ous  they  may  be  easily  destroyed  by  cut- 
ting them  off  with  the  spud  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Observations,  (i)  Wild  lettuce  is  not 
difficult  of  eradication  where  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  the  maturing  of  the  seeds.  (2) 
Farms  cannot  be  kept  free  from  it  in  an 


Description  of  Ragzveed  and  Kinghcad.  141 

infested     neighborhood,     without     concen- 
trated action  on  the  part  of  the  farmers. 

(6)    RAGWEED. 

Ragweed  (Ambrosia  artcmisicefolia)  and 
kinghead  {Ambrosia  trifida)  are  annual 
plants,  with  slender,  much-branched  stems. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  ragweed,  but 
the  varfety  represented  in  the  sketch  and 
the  one  known  as  kinghead  are  by  far  the 
most  troublesome  ones.  Ragweed  more 
commonly  grows  to  the  height  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-one  inches,  though  in 
some  soils  it  will,  under  favorable  conditions, 
grow  to  the  height  of  four  feet.  King- 
head  is  usually  more  vigorous,  growing 
from  three  to  six  feet  high.  The  blossoms 
have  a  yellow^ish  tinge,  but  the  contrast  in 
color  between  them  and  the  leaves  is  not 
marked.  The  seeds  are  small  and  helmet- 
shaped,  and  when  ripe  are  of  a  dark  hue. 
They  are  produced  on  the  lower  portions 
of  the  flower-bearing  parts  of  the  branches, 
and  are  very  numerous.  They  are  so  light 
that  they  float  readily  in  water,  and  they 
are  possessed  of  great  vitality. 

These  weeds  usually  do  not  develop 
until  late  in  the  season ;  they  sometimes  do 


142  Weeds. 


COMMON  RAGWEED. 


Description  of  Ragivecd  and  Kinghcad.  143 

not  ripen  their  seeds  in  grain  crops  before 
these  are  harvested,  or  in  meadows  before 
the  time  of  cutting.  In  the  stubbles  of 
these  crops,  if  not  disturbed,  they  continue 
to  grow  until  late  in  the  season.  The  blos- 
soms and  seeds  are  produced  from  July 
till  frost,  the  precise  time  of  blossoming 
varying  with  the  attendant  conditions  of 
growth. 

These  weeds  will  grow  in  all  soils  that 
are  free  from  stagnant  water,  but  they 
very  much  prefer  friable  or  loamy  soils 
that  contain  a  large  proportion  of  humus. 
They  revel  in  black  loams  and  muck  soils 
that  have  been  well  drained,  but  do  not 
make  much  headway  in  stiff  clays,  except 
in  depressions  and  valleys,  or  along  water 
furrows  and  watercourses. 

While  ragweed  will  grow  in  all  kinds  of 
crops,  it  does  not  usually  mature  its  seeds 
in  grain  crops,  nor  does  it  mature  them  in 
the  first  cutting  for  the  season  in  a  clover 
meadow.  In  rich  soils,  as  in  the  Red  River 
\'alley,  the^rank  growth  of  these  weeds  in 
grain  fields  makes  them'  serious  pests.  In 
all  kinds  of  stubble  they  push  on  rapidly 
after  the  crop  has  been  removed,  and  if 
not   disturbed,   produce  an  enormous   crop 


44 


Weeds. 


KINGHEAD  OR  GREAT   RAGWEED. 


Description  of  Ragweed  and  Kinghead.  145 

of  seeds  before  the  season  closes ;  and  in 
cultivated  crops,  as  corn  or  roots,  they  will 
also  produce  seed  abundantly  if  due  atten- 
tion is  not  given  to  cultivation  late  in  the 
season. 

Ragweed  and  kinghead  are  distributed  in 
the  seeds  of  all  the  late-maturing  cereals, 
and  in  the  seed  of  mammoth  and  alsike 
clover,  and  of  timothy.  Ragweed  is  most 
commonly  distributed  in  the  seed  of  com- 
mon red  clover,  for  the  reason  that  by 
the  time  the  clover  crop  is  harvested  for 
thrashing  a  large  proportion  of  the  seeds 
of  the  ragweed  growing  in  it  have  also 
ripened.  It  is  in  the  seed  of  common  red 
clover  that  ragweed  is  usually  carried  to 
new  centers.  The  seeds  of  these  weeds 
are  also  distributed  by  the  excrement  of 
animals,  by  clover  hullers  and  by  birds. 
In  localities  w'here  these  w^eeds  once  get  a 
foothold,  no  agent  is  so  potent  in  effecting 
their  distribution  as  water.  In  low-lying, 
level  lands,  their  distribution  soon  becomes 
as  wide  as  the  range  of  the  w^ater  which 
overflow's  them.  The  water  in  its  subsi- 
dence leaves  the  seeds  scattered  every- 
where over  the  soil.  It  is  impossible, 
therefore,  to  keep  entirely  free  from  these 


146  Weeds. 

weeds  those  parts  of  a  farm  which  are  sub- 
jected to  a  periodical  overflow  of  water 
coming  down  from  lands  where  they 
abound.  The  most  that  can  be  done,  under 
such  circumstances,  is  to  keep  them  cut 
down  as  they  spring  up,  so  that  they  can- 
not mature  their  seeds. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  ragweed  and  kinghead. 

/.  Modifying  the  rotation  and  autumn 
cultivation.  Modify  the  rotation,  and  give 
special  attention  to  autumn  cultivation. 
Happily,  the  rotation  will  not  require  seri- 
ous modification  where  careful  attention  is 
given  to  the  working  of  the  soil  in  autumn, 
but  late-ripening  cereals  should  not  be 
grown  in  the  meantime,  nor  should  timothy 
nor  any  of  the  forms  of  clover  be  allowed 
to  produce  a  seed  crop  in  the  infested  fields 
until  the  ragweed  is  much  reduced.  As 
soon  as  the  cereal  crops  are  harvested,  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  or  disked.  It 
may  then  be  occasionally  stirred  until  the 
late  plowing  that  is  given  on  the  approach 
of  winter.    Autumn  cultivation  is  peculiarly 


Eradication  of  Ragweed  and  Kinghead.  147 

helpful  in  destroying  these  weeds,  for  the 
reason  that  the  plants  grow  late,  rather 
than  early,  in  the  season. 

2.  Growing  cultivated  crops.  Grow  cul- 
tivated crops,  taking  special  care  that  the 
cultivation  is  carried  on  well  through  the 
season. 

5.  Using  the  mower.  When  fields  are 
newly  sown  to  grass,  the  use  of  the  mower 
in  the  autumn  will  be  found  very  effective. 
The  mowing  should  be  done  as  close  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  as  possible,  for  the 
reason  that  the  seeds  of  the  ragweed  are 
often  formed  low  down  on  the  stem,  and  of 
course  it  should  be  done  before  any  of  the 
seeds  ripen.  Pastures  and  meadows  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

4.  Spraying.  Ragweed  or  kinghead  in 
fields  of  small  grain  may  be  killed  or  mate- 
rially checked  by  spraying  with  any  of  the 
materials  recommended  in  the  following 
chapter,  if  applied  when  the  plants  are 
about  six  inches  high. 

Observations,  (i)  When  infested  mead- 
ows or  pastures  are  to  be  broken  up,  the 
work  should  be  done,  wherever  practicable, 
before  any  of  the  seeds  of  the  weed  have 
had  opportunity  to  ripen.      (2)   When  the 


148  Weeds. 

plants  are  well  reduced,  hand  spudding  will 
soon  effect  the  extermination  of  this  weed, 
but  if  its  seeds  have  been  allowed  to  become 
numerous  in  the  soil,  several  years  will  nec- 
essarily elapse  before  the  work  of  eradica- 
tion can  be  completely  effected.  (3)  Sheep 
may  be  made  to  render  substantial  service 
in  reducing  the  prevalence  of  this  weed, 
more  especially  if  they  be  allowed  to  feed 
upon  it  during  the  earlier  stages  of  its 
growth. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


METHODS    OF    ERADICATING    WEEDS    OF    THE 
MUSTARD    FAMILY. 

The  mustard  family  contains  a  large 
number  of  troublesome  weeds,  such  as  wild 
mustard,  false  flax,  French  weed  or  penny- 
cress,  peppergrass,  shepherd's  purse,  and 
wild  radish,  as-well  as  some  of  our  common 
garden  vegetables,  as  the  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower and  turnip.  The  plants  of  this  fam- 
ily may  be  recognized  by  the  shape  of  the 
flowers,  as  the  parts  are  in  fours  in  oppo- 
site pairs,  forming  a  cross.  The  flowers, 
which  are  usually  white  or  yellow,  are 
borne  on  stems  (foot-stalks)  which  usually 
arise  from  a  cluster  of  leaves  at  the  base. 
They  are  closely  clustered  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches,  which  gradually  lengthen  into 
long  racemes,  with  all  stages  from  the 
unopened  flower  buds  above  to  ripe  seeds 
at  the  base.  The  leaves  and  stems  usually 
have  a  decided  odor  when  crushed.  Most 
of  the  plants  of  this  family  are  annuals  or 


I50  Weeds. 

winter  annuals,  though  a  few  are  biennials 
and  perennials. 

The  weeds  included  in  this  family  usually 
occur  in  grain  fields,  gardens,  lawns  and 
thin  meadows.  As  they  grow  rapidly  and 
ripen  their  seeds  with  the  grain,  they  are 
difficult  to  combat  by  ordinary  means  in 
sections  where  small  grains  are  grown  con- 
tinuously on  the  same  land  for  a  period  of 
years.  Where  winter  wheat  and  other 
winter  grains  are  grown,  many  of  the  mus- 
tard-like weeds  grow  as  winter  annuals, 
developing  a  rosette  of  root-leaves  in  the 
fall,  and  starting  into  bloom  and  the  matur- 
ing of  seeds  very  early  the  following  spring. 
As  most  of  the  weeds  of  this  family  are 
annuals,  they  are  easily  killed  by  cultiva- 
tion when  small  and  give  little  trouble  where 
a  good  rotation  is  practiced,  with  the  fre- 
quent introduction  of  crops  which  require 
frequent  cultivation.  Naturally,  as  with 
other  annuals,  preventing  the  plants  from 
seeding  is  effective,  but  as  the  seeds  of 
most  of  the  plants  of  this  family  have  an 
oily  or  mucilaginous  covering  which  effect- 
ually prevents  decay,  they  maintain  their 
vitality  in  the  soil  for  many  years,  and  if 


Eradication  of  Mustard.  151 

once  allowed  to  ripen  a  crop  of  seeds  will 
give  trouble  for  a  long  time  thereafter. 

The  habits  of  growth  of  most  of  the 
weeds  of  this  family  are  quite  similar,  so 
that  a  method  which  is  effective  in  eradi- 
cating one  of  them  is  usually  equally  so  in 
keeping  others  in  check.  For  that  reason, 
the  methods  which  are  generally  applicable 
will  be  first  discussed,  followed  by  brief 
descriptions  of  wild  mustard,  false  flax, 
French  weed  and  tumbling  mustard,  the 
members  of  this  group  which  are  most  fre- 
quently troublesome. 

Among  the  methods  which  may  be  used 
in  eradicating  weeds  of  the  mustard  family 
may  be  mentioned  sowing  clean  seed,  har- 
rowing spring  grain,  maintaining  a  regular 
rotation,  fall  cultivation  of  stubble  fields, 
growing  cultivated  crops,  bare  fallow,  hand 
pulling  and  spraying.  To  obtain  the  best 
results  from  these  methods,  it  is  sometimes 
wise  to  use  two  or  more  of  them  together, 
as,  for  example,  following  fall  cultivation  of 
stubble  with  a  cultivated  crop  in  the  spring. 

7.  Sowing  clean  seed  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  ways  of  keeping  the  weeds  dis- 
cussed in  this  chapter  in  check.  As  the 
seeds   of   most  of   these   plants   are   small, 


152  Weeds. 

they  are  quite  easily  removed  from  wheat 
and  barley  by  screening.  They  are  more 
difficult  to  take  out  of  seed  oats,  as  a  small 
proportion  will  stick  in  the  crease  of  the 
larger  oat  grains.  They  are  exceedingly 
difficult  to  remove  from  the  seeds  of  clover 
and  alfalfa,  however,  as  they  are  about  the 
same  size  and  shape  as  the  seeds  of  these 
plants.  Care  should  be  taken  in  purchas- 
ing clover  and  grass  seeds  to  see  that  they 
are  free  from  seeds  of  these  and  other 
weeds. 

2.  Harrozviiig  spving-soivn  small  grain 
fields  in  the  early  spring,  when  the  young 
grain  begins  to  appear,  and  again  when  it 
is  about  three  to  five  inches  high,  is  quite 
effective  in  killing  the  young  mustard  and 
similar  plants.  In  some  instances  three 
and  even  four  harro wings  may  be  given, 
especially  in  areas  where  the  grain  also 
will  be  benefited  by  harrowing  it  thus  fre- 
quently. This  method  can  only  be  prac- 
ticed to  advantage  on  drilled  grain,  as  the 
harrow  will  pull  out  the  young  grain  as 
well  as  the  weeds  in  broadcast  fields,  nor 
should  it  be  used  where  the  ground  is  very 
wet  in  the  spring.  It  is  not  particularly 
effective  on  fall-sown  grain,  as  the  weeds 


Eradication  of  Mustard.  153 

which  come  np  in  the  fall  along  with  the 
grain  are  too  securely  rooted  in  the  spring 
to  be  removed  by  the  harrow. 

J.  A  regular  rotation  of  crops  which 
includes  the  introduction  at  frequent  and 
regular  intervals  of  cultivated  crops  and 
meadow,  with  the  recurrence  of  small  grain 
not  oftener  than  once  in  three  years,  is  an 
excellent  means  of  preventing  the  growth 
of  mustard  and  similar  weeds,  but  one 
which  in  many  sections  can  hardly  yet  be 
deemed  practicable.  Where  such  a  rota- 
tion is  practiced  and  proper  attention  given 
the  cultivated  crop  and  the  sowing  of  clean 
seed,  these  and  similar  weeds  are  not  likely 
to  give  trouble.  If  they  are  introduced  in 
some  way,  a  modification  of  the  rotation 
may  be  necessary  in  any  particular  field 
where  they  become  common,  by  dropping 
small  grains  out  of  it  till  these  weeds  are 
subdued. 

4.  Fall  cultivation  of  stubble  -fields  is 
effective,  but  of  course  can  only  be  prac- 
ticed where  clover  or  grass  seed  has  not 
been  sown  with  the  grain.  A  shallow  plow- 
ing or  thorough  disking  immediately  after 
harvest  will  cause  the  seeds  of  mustard 
and  many  other  weeds  to  sprout  if  moist- 


154  Weeds. 

ure  conditions  are  right.  Occasional  har- 
rowings  will  then  kill  the  small  weeds,  and 
encourage  germination  of  more  seed,  which 
in  turn  can  be  destroyed.  This  method  is 
particularly  good  when  it  can  be  followed 
by  the  growing  of  a  cultivated  crop  in  the 
spring,  as  outlined  below.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  grow  small  grain  on  the  field  on 
which  autumn  cultivation  is  practiced,  har- 
rowing in  the  spring  after  the  grain  is  up, 
as  outlined  in  the  preceding  section,  is 
strongly  to  he  recommended. 

5.  Fall  cultivation,  foUozved  by  a  cidti- 
vated  crop  in  the  spring.  Fields  which  are 
pretty  thoroughly  infested  with  mustard 
can  be  cleared  of  this  weed,  except  as  the 
seed  remains  in  the  ground,  by  the  autumn 
cultivation  advised  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graph, if  it  is  followed  by  a  cultivated  crop 
in  the  spring.  As  previously  noted,  the 
weeds  of  the  mustard  family  do  not  give 
serious  trouble  where  thorough  cultivation 
is  practiced.  Growing  a  quick-maturing, 
vigorous  soiling  crop  which  will  tend  to 
smother  the  weeds  and  at  the  same  time  be 
removed  early  enough  to  prevent  the  ripen- 
ing of  seeds  in  any  quantity  is  also  a  good 
method  of  fighting  annual  weeds   in  con- 


Eradication  of  Mustard.  155 

junction  with  fall  cultivation  of  stubble 
fields. 

6.  The  bare  falloiv  which  is  maintained 
throughout  the  season,  though  effective,  is 
an  expensive  method  of  fighting  weeds  of 
this  class,  both  in  the  labor  required  to 
maintain  it,  and  the  soil  fertility  which  is 
lost  through  leaching,  especially  where  the 
rainfall  is  considerable.  A  modification 
of  the  bare  fallow  which  is  maintained 
throughout  the  year  can  be  made  by  com- 
bining the  fall  cultivation  advised  in  sec- 
tion 3  with  disking  and  harrowing  in 
the  spring  for  a  few  weeks,  followed  by 
late  planting  of  a  cultivated  crop  or  a  rank- 
growing  soiling  or  green  manure  crop. 
This  is  a  good  method  of  fighting  weeds 
of  all  kinds,  and  is  less  expensive  than  fal- 
lowing through  the  entire  season,  while  it 
does  not  require  the  land  to  lie  idle 
throughout  the  year  and  thus  lose  a  crop. 

/.  Hand  pulling  is  practicable  only  when 
mustard  and  similar  weeds  occur  in  small 
numbers  when  first  introduced,  or  when 
they  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  other 
methods.  Hand  pulling  is  more  efifective 
than  spudding,  as  the  weeds  can  then  be 
carried  from  the  field  and  burned  or  other- 


156  Weeds. 

wise  destroyed.  This  is  particularly  neces- 
sary with  wild  mustard  and  similar  weeds, 
which  have  the  power  of  maturing  their 
seeds  even  after  the  plants  are  removed 
from  the  ground. 

8.  Spraying.  A  method  which  has  been 
quite  commonly  practiced  in  some  sections 
in  recent  years,  and  is  now  considered  by 
many  to  be  one  of  the  best  means  of  com- 
bating mustard  and  other  broad-leaved 
weeds  in  grain  fields,  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, is  spraying  with  a  solution  of  salt, 
iron  sulfate,  or  some  other  chemical. 
Spraying  experiments  to  kill  weeds  were 
first  begun  in  this  country  about  1896,  but 
it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the  practice 
has  become  at  all  general.  This  method, 
even  as  it  is  at  present  developed,  can  not 
take  the  place  of  the  more  generally  rec- 
ognized methods  of  fighting  weeds,  such  as 
the  sowing  of  clean  seed,  thorough  culti- 
vation, and  crop  rotation.  It  is  effective, 
however,  in  checking  the  growth  of  weeds 
in  those  sections  where  no  definite  crop 
rotation  which  includes  the  growing  of  cul- 
tivated crops  is  practiced,  but  where  crop 
after  crop  of  small  grain  is  grown  on  the 
land. 


Eradication  by  Spraying.  157 

The  ivecds  zvhich  can  he  killed  or  seri- 
ously checked  by  spraying  include  most  of 
the  broad-leaved  plants,  such  as  those 
included  in  the  mustard  family,  kinghead, 
ragweed,  dandelion,  and  even  the  Canada 
and  bull  thistles.  Perennials  and  biennials 
like  these  latter,  however,  must  be  sprayed 
several  times  throughout  the  season  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  new  shoots  from  the 
roots.  Other  methods  will  usually  be 
found  cheaper  and  better  in  fighting  these 
weeds,  with  the  possible  exception  of  dan- 
delions in  lawns.  The  spray,  if  properly 
applied,  will  not  injure  the  small  grains, 
or  grasses  which  may  have  been  sown  with 
the  grain,  as  timotliy  or  brome  grass.  Flax 
should  not  be  sprayed  after  it  is  three  or 
four  inches  high.  Spraying  is  injurious  to 
clover  and  alfalfa,  and  should  not  be  used 
on  any  grain  field  in  which  seeds  of  these 
crops  have  been  sown,  or  in  meadows  con- 
taining them.  It  is  not  effective  in  fight- 
ing wild  oats,  quack  grass,  foxtail,  or 
other  weedy  grasses. 

The  best  time  to  spray  is  when  the  first 
of  the  mustard,  Frenchweed,  or  false  flax 
plants  are  in  blossom,  but  before  they  have 
formed  pods,  as  the  plants  are  often  jiot 


158  IVceds. 

entirely  killed  by  the  spray  and  the  roots 
and  stems  may  contain  sufficient  vitality 
to  mature  the  seeds,  even  after  the  leaves 
are  killed.  The  proper  time  to  apply  the 
spray  of  course  varies  with  the  locality,  but 
it  is  usually  in  May  or  early  June.  The 
most  effective  work  can  be  done  if  the 
spray  is  applied  in  damp,  cloudy  weather, 
or  toward  evening,  when  the  evaporation 
will  not  be  rapid.  Naturally,  the  work 
should  not  be  done  when  a  rain  is  immi- 
nent, as  the  rain  will  wash  the  chemical 
off  the  leaves  and  destroy  its  effectiveness. 
Weeds  are  more  easily  killed  when  the 
growth  is  rapid  than  when  it  is  slow. 
Usually  one  spraying  is  sufficient,  but  if 
the  weeds  are  numerous,  an  additional 
application  a  week  or  ten  days  later  may 
be  necessary. 

The  materials  used  in  spraying  are  usu- 
ally solutions  of  iron  sulfate,  copper  sul- 
fate, or  common  salt.  Iron  sulfate  (cop- 
peras) is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
most  effective  chemical  for  use  in  destroy- 
ing mustard  and  similar  weeds.  About  50 
to  55  gallons  of  any  of  these  solutions  are 
required  to  cover  the  weeds  on  an  acre  of 
land  properly.     The  proper  strength  of  the 


Eradication  by  Spraying.  159 

solution  is  about  75  to  100  pounds  of  iron 
sulfate  to  50  gallons  of  water;  75  pounds 
are  sufficient  if  the  weeds  are  young  and 
growing  rapidly.  From  12  to  15  pounds 
of  copper  sulfate,  or  about  one-third  of  a 
barrel  of  common  salt,  in  50  gallons  of 
water,  will  make  the  solution  of  proper 
strength  for  good  work  when  these  mate- 
rials are  used. 

The  machinery  for  spraying  varies  with 
the  acreage  on  which  it  is  to  be  used.  If 
only  a  small  area  is  to  be  sprayed,  as  in 
lawns  or  the  eradication  of  small  patches 
of  some  particular  weed,  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary knapsack  or  bucket  spray  pumps,  if 
fitted  with  a  nozzle  which  will  give  a  fine, 
misty  spray,  will  be  found  satisfactory.  If 
a  large  acreage  is  to  be  sprayed,  a  power 
sprayer  of  the  type  shown  in  the  frontis- 
piece is  necessary.  This  machine,  or  a  simi- 
lar one,  can  be  purchased  from  dealers  in 
spraying  apparatus  for  from  $75  to  $150, 
the  cost  varying  with  the  size  and  effective- 
ness of  the  machine.  It  is  essential  in  any 
case  to  use  a  machine  with  sufiicient  power 
to  give  a  strong,  misty  spray;  a  sprinkler 
will  not  do.  It  is  desirable  in  purchasing 
a  sprayer  to  select  one  which  can  be  used 


i6o  Weeds. 

for  other  purposes  if  possible,  such  as  the 
spraying  of  potatoes  or  orchard  and  truck 
crops. 

The  cost  of  spraying  varies  according  to 
the  material  used,  the  machinery  with  which 
it  is  applied,  and  th|ej:ime  necessary  to  apply 
it.  The  material,  whether  it  be  iron  sul- 
phate, copper  sulphate,  or  common  salt, 
should  not  cost  more  than  $1.25  an  acre, 
and  may  run  as  low  as  75  cents,  according 
to  the  cost  in  the  local  market,  the  material, 
and  the  quantity  used.  Salt  is  probably  the 
cheapest  of  the  three,  and  should  not  cost 
more  than  75  cents.  A  field  sprayer  like 
that  illustrated  should  spray  from  25  to  40 
acres  in  a  day.  In  addition  to  the  driver 
and  horse  or  team  necessary  for  this  outfit, 
another  man  and  team  to  haul  water  will 
be  needed  for  rapid  work  unless  the  spray- 
ing is  done  close  to  the  water  supply. 

The  weeds  of  tliis  family  for  which  spe- 
cial descriptions  are  given  are  the  ones 
which  are  most  commonly  found  trouble- 
some. They  are  the  zvild  mustard,  false 
■Rax,  French  zvecd  or  pemiycress/and  tum- 
bling mustard.  The  methods  of  eradication 
outlined  in  the  foregoing  pages  will  be 
found  effective  in  combating  these  and  sim- 


Description  of  Wild  Mustard.       idi 

ilar  weeds  of  the  mustard  family,  such  as 
peppergrass,  shepherd's  purse,  and  the  wild 
radish. 

(l)     WILD    MUSTARD. 

Wild  mustard  (Brassica  arvensis)  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  weeds  to  dislodge  found 
on  this  continent,  when  once  it  gets  a  strong 
foothold  in  the  soil.  Owing  to  the  extraor- 
dinary vitality  of  its  seeds,  a  very  long  time 
is  required  to  completely  effect  its  removal 
from  any  soil  infested  by  it,  for  the  reason 
that  for  years  and  years  the  seeds  lying  in 
the  soil  continue  to  germinate  with  each 
successive  cultivation  that  may  happen  to 
bring  them  near  the  surface. 

Wild  mustard  is  an  annual  plant  which, 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  its  growth,  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  radish  and  to  the 
yellow-fleshed  varieties  of  the  turnip.  It 
has  a  spreading,  fibrous  root,  as  shown  in 
the  sketch.  Its  stem  is  more  or  less 
branched,  according  as  it  is  crowded  or  not 
when  growing,  and  it  bears  a  bright  yellow 
blossom,  which  can  be  seen  at  a  consider- 
able distance.  Its  seeds  resemble  those  of 
the  turnip  so  closely  that  they  cannot  easily 
be  distinguished  from  them,  and  thev  also 


1 62 


Weeds. 


closely  resemble  the  seeds  of  some  varieties 
of  rape. 

Wild  mustard  comes  up  in  spring  as  soon 
as  the  weather  gets  really  warm,  but  seeds 
that  come  sufficiently  near  the  surface  will 
germinate  as  long  as  the  season  of  growth 


WILD  MUSTARD. 


lasts.  It  grows  very  rapidly,  and  matures 
an  immense  number  of  seeds.  It  sometimes 
grows  to  the  height  of  more  than  two  feet, 
but  when  it  ripens  amid  grain  crops  is  about 
eighteen  inches  in  height.     Its  seed  pods 


Description  of  Wild  Mustard.       163 

are  usually  about  an  inch  in  length.  The 
first  flowers,  or  those  borne  by  the  earlier 
developed  plants,  appear  in  May  or  early  in 
June,  but  the  late  plants  will  produce  seeds 
on  into  the  month  of  September,  or  even 
later.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  a  plant  that 
can  withstand  severe  frost,  hence  it  is  not 
found  to  any  considerable  extent  in  mead- 
ows or  pastures,  or  in  fields  of  winter 
wheat  or  rye.  It  is  not  positively  known 
how  long  its  seeds  will  retain  the  power  of 
germination  when  lying  in  the  soil,  but  it 
lias  been  claimed  that  they  may  lie  buried 
for  at  least  fifty  years  and  yet  immediately 
spring  into  vigorous  life  when  brought  to 
the  •  surface  of  the  soil  under  favorable 
conditions. 

Wild  mustard  will  grow  in  all  kinds  of 
soils,  but  not  equally  well.  It  is  most  at 
home  in  friable  limestone  soils  that  possess 
good  drainage,  but  it  will  also  grow  in  great 
luxuriance  on  loamy  prairie  soils.  On  stiff 
clays  it  does  not  grow  so  readily;  but  it 
will  make  fair  headway  even  in  these  when 
given  tlie  opportunity. 

Wild  mustard  grows  in  all  kinds  of  grain 
crops  that  are  sown  in  the  spring,  and  usu- 
ally it  matures  its  seeds  before  the  grain  in 


1 64  Weeds. 

which  it  grows  is  ripe.  It  is  manifest  that 
where  spring  grains  are  chiefly  grown  the 
contest  with  this  weed  will  be  a  difficult 
one.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  persons 
that  wild  mustard  does  not  interfere  to  any 
serious  extent  with  the  yields  of  the  crops 
amid  which  it  grows,  but  it  must  be  evident 
to  any  one  who  understands  the  way  in 
which  plants  feed  that  a  soil  cannot  produce 
a  crop  of  mustaid  and  one  of  grain  at  the 
same  time,  with  the  result  that  the  grain 
will  yield  as  well  as  if  the  mustard  had  not 
been  there. 

Wild  mustard  is  distributed  by  means  of 
various  agencies.  Some  seeds  are  carried 
from  place  to  place  by  birds,  but  usually 
this  weed  finds  its  way  to  new  centers  by 
the  seed  being  carried  in  grain.  The  thrash- 
ing machine  is  also  a  potent  means  of  car- 
rying it  from  farm  to  farm.  It  is  further 
distributed  over  farms  on  which  it  grows 
by  means  of  the  droppings  of  cattle,  and  by 
the  manure.  It  is  also  very  frequently  dis- 
tributed by  spring  floods;  when  this  is  the 
case  the  farmer  has  great  difficulty  in  deal- 
ing with  it. 


Description  of  False  Flax.  165 

(2)    FALSE  FLAX. 

False  flax  (Camelina  saliva),  sometimes 
known  as  wild  flax,  has  probably  gained  its 
name  from  the  prevalent,  but  mistaken, 
notion  that  it  has  originated  in  the  degen- 
eracy of  cultivated  flax,  whereas  cultivated 
flax  is  a  plant  of  another  order.  False  flax 
usually  grows  to  the  height  of  about  eigh- 
teen inches,  but  sometimes  it  grows  consid- 
erably higher.  Where  the  seeds  have  been 
shed  numerously  the  previous  year  around 
some  parent  stem,  it  frequently  comes  up 
so  thickly  that  some  of  the  plants  cannot 
grow  more  than  a  few  inches  above  the 
ground.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  its  growth 
false  flax  is  somewhat  leafy,  but  after  its 
blossoming  stage  is  passed  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  plant  consist  mainly  of  stems 
and  seed  pods,  as  shown  in  the  sketch.  The 
blossoms  are  small,  and  of  a  pale  yellow 
color. 

Ordinarily,  false  flax  is  classed  as  an 
annual,  although  it  usually  commences  to 
grow  in  the  later  portions  of  the  year  previ- 
ous to  that  in  which  the  seeds  are  matured. 
False  flax  is  very  hardy,  and  can  withstand 
considerable   frost.      Its   seeds,    which   are 


i66 


Weeds. 


1<ALSE  FLAX. 


Description  of  False  Flax.  167 

very  numerous,  are  easily  shed,  hence  when 
the  ripe  plants  are  disturbed  by  the  jar  of 
the  machines  used  in  cutting  the  crops  amid 
which  they  grow,  many  of  their  seeds  are 
shed  upon  the  ground.  The  seeds  of  false 
flax  have  some  resemblance  to  the  seeds  of 
common  flax,  but  they  are  much  smaller. 

False  flax  is  a  weed  that  will  grow  in  any 
kind  of  soil  adapted  to  winter  wheat  or 
meadow,  hence  it  will  flourish  on  a  wide 
range  of  soils.  It  seems  equally  at  home  in 
the  stiffest  clays  and  in  the  mild,  humous 
loams  of  the  prairie.  False  flax  peculiarly 
infests  winter  wheat,  rye,  meadows  and 
pastures.  It  does  not  usually  grow  to  any 
considerable  extent  in  spring  crops,  but 
sometimes  stray  plants  will  be  found  in 
these  crops.  These  stray  plants,  however, 
usually  have  sprung  up  in  the  preceding 
fall,  and  have  survived  the  cultivation 
involved  in  preparing  the  ground  for  being 
sown  in  the  spring. 

This  plant  is  distributed  by  means  of  the 
seeds  of  the  crops  amid  which  it  grows, 
by  farmyard  manure,  and  by  droppings  of 
cattle,  but  it  is  more  widely  distributed  by 
being  carried  in  the  seed  of  timothy  than 
in  any  other  way.     In  this  fact  we  find  a 


i68  Weeds. 

chief  explanation  of  the  sudden  app'^irance 
of  false  flax  in  new  centres  where  formerly 
it  was  not  known. 

Observations.  In  the  conflict  with  false 
flax 'it  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  fol- 
lowing: (i)  That  grass  seeds  should  inva- 
riably be  sown  along  with  spring  grain,  as 
wheat  or  barley;  (2)  that  autumn  cultiva- 
tion is  always  the  most  important  thing  to 
be  attended  to,  owing  to  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  the  weed  to  germinate  from  seed 
in  the  fall  of  the  year;  (3)  that  when  false 
flax  is  found  in  meadows  merely  in  detached 
patches,  the  infested  parts  may  be  cut  and 
used  for  soiling  purposes,  while  the  remain- 
der of  the  crop  may  be  harvested  in  the 
usual  way;  (4)  that  where  alfalfa  can  be 
substituted  for  the  ordinary  meadow  crops 
it  is  well  to  make  the  change,  inasmuch  as 
in  that  case  the  first  cutting  of  the  alfalfa 
would  take  place  before  the  false  flax  would 
be  ripe. 

(3)    FRENCH  WEED. 

Frenchweed  (Thlaspi  arvense),  also 
known  as  pennycress  and  stinkweed,  is  an 
annual,  but  when  it  has  not  yet  produced 
seeds  in  the  autumn,  it  will  live  through  the 


Description  of  Frcuchzvccd.         169 

winter  and  mature  them  the  following 
spring  and  summer.  The  name  stinkweed 
is  due  to  the  offensive  odor  which  it  pos- 
sesses, and  which  it  imparts  to  the  beef  and 
milk  of  animals  which  feed  upon  it.  It  is 
of  the  same  family  as  mustard,  and,  like  all 
weeds  of  that  family,  it  is  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate. In  certain  sections  of  the  western 
prairies  it  is  giving  very  much  trouble,  more 
especially  in  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas  and 
Manitoba. 

French  weed  is  usually  about  a  foot  high, 
but  under  favorable  circumstances  it  will 
reach  the  height  of  two  feet,  and  the  plants 
are  capable  of  bearing  seeds  though  not 
more  than  2  inches  high.  The  branches  are 
numerous.  The  leaves  are  oblong  in  shape 
and  of  a  deep  green  shade.  The  flowers 
are  very  small  and  white  in  color.  The  seed 
pods  are  elliptical  and  flat,  and  from  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  to  half  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. They  are  very  numerous  and  each  pod 
contains  several  small   seeds. 

Frenchweed  will  ripen  its  seeds  at  any 
season  of  the  year  from  June  until  the 
arrival  of  the  autumn  frosts.  The  season 
of  maturity  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the  time 
of  the  year  at  which  the  plants  commence 


170 


Weeds. 


to  grow.     Those  which  get  a  start  in  the 
autumn  blossom  in  May,  and  by  the  arrival 


FRENCHWEED. 


of  the  harvest  season  the  seeds  will  nearly 
all  be  shed  on  the  ground.     It  is  claimed 


Description  of  Tumbling  Mustard.  171 

that  plants  from  seeds  which  have  fallen 
early  in  the  season  will  in  turn  mature 
before  the  coming  of  winter. 

Frenchweed  will  grow  least  vigorously 
on  stiff  clays,  and  most  luxuriantly  on  the 
vegetable  soils  of  the  prairies.  It  harms 
grain  crops  much  more  than  pasture  or 
meadow  or  cultivated  crops,  and  it  does 
m.ore  injury  to  grain  crops  which  ripen 
early  than  to  those  which  ripen  late. 

Frenchweed  is  distributed  through  the 
medium  of  the  seeds.  They  are  carried 
along  with  the  seeds  of  cereals  amid  which 
they  have  grown.  They  may  also  be  dis- 
tributed in  manure  and  in  the  droppings  of 
cattle,  and  to  some  extent  they  are  con- 
veyed by  water  and  carried  by  wind.  The 
seeds  are  possessed  of  great  vitality,  but 
they  will  not  germinate  unless  they  are  near 
the  surface  of  the  soil. 

(4)    TUxMBLING    MUSTARD. 

Tumbling  mustard  (Sisynibrimn  altissi- 
mum)  is  another  bad  weed  of  the  mustard 
family.  In  some  localities  it  is  known 
simply  as  "Tumble  weed,"  but  in  central 
Europe  it  is  called  Hungarian  mustard.  It 
is  thought  that  it  was  brought  to  this  con- 


172  Weeds. 

tinent  by  certain  Aiistrians  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
way. About  the  year  1889,  it  began  to 
arrest  the  attention  of  the  farmers  around 
Indian  Head,  Saskatchewan.  Since  that 
date  it  has  spread  rapidly  over  a  large  sec- 
tion of  the  Canadian  Northwest,  and  to 
some  extent  into  the  adjoining  portions  of 
the  United  States. 

Tumbling  mustard  is  an  annual  or  winter 
annual.  When  it  grows  amid  small  grain 
crops,  its  branches  are  not  numerous,  but 
they  are  long  and  slender.  When  it  has 
room  to  grow  the  branches  are  quite  nu- 
merous and  they  bear  an  enormous  nunaber 
of  seed  pods.  The  seeds  are  small,  and  of 
a  dark  reddish  brown  color.  The  plants 
commonly  grow  about  two  feet  high  but 
the  height  varies  with  the  soil  and  season. 
The  flowers  are  a  pale  yellow  and  the  plant 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  common  wild 
mustard. 

Tumbling  mustard  will  grow  at  all 
season  between  the  time  of  the  spring  and 
autumn  frosts.  The  seeds  usually  mature 
at  the  same  time  as  those  of  the  small 
grains  or  even   a  little  earlier,   but  under 


Description  of  Tumbling  Mustard.  173 

certain    conditions    they    will    continue  to 
ripen  until  the  arrival  of  the  autumn  frosts. 


TUMBLING   MUSTARD 


If   cut    off   before    the    blossoming    stage, 
more  branches  will  be  produced. 


174  Weeds. 

While  tumbling  mustard  infests  all  kinds 
of  crops,  it  is  peculiarly  troublesome  in 
cereals.  Where  these  get  an  early  and 
vigorous  start  in  the  spring,  they  will  keep 
the'  weeds  in  check  for  that  reason,  but 
when  from  any  cause  the  crops  are  weakly, 
the  weeds  will  soon  overshadow  them.  It 
does  not  give  serious  trouble  in  pastures  or 
meadows.  This  plant  will  grow  in  various 
classes  of  soils,  but  it  thrives  most  vigor- 
ously on  those  essentially  humous  in  their 
composition. 

Tumbling  mustard  is  propagated  chiefly 
by  such  agencies  as  wind,  water,  birds  and 
the  seeds  of  cereals  and  millet,  but  of  these 
the  first  mentioned  is  by  far  the  most  potent 
and  dangerous.  As  the  wind  is  such  an 
efifective  agency  in  its  distribution,  anything 
that  will  stop  the  spread  of  this  weed  by 
this  means,  as  a  wire  fence,  will  be  useful. 
If  the  mustard  and  other  plants  which  col- 
lect along  the  fence  are  then  gathered  up 
and  destroyed,  they  will  be  prevented  from 
again  blowing  out  into  the  fields  when  the 
direction  of  the  wind  changes. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ERADICATION   OF  THE  WEEDY  GRASSES. 

The  grass  family  includes  a  large  number 
of  our  most  useful  plants,  such  as  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  all  the  forage 
grasses,  and  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
great  botanical  divisions.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  includes  some  of  our  most  trouble- 
some weeds,  which,  because  of  the  persist- 
ence of  their  creeping  root-stocks,  as  in 
quack  grass,  or  the  similarity  of  their 
growth  and  seed  habits  to  the  cereals  in 
which  they  grow,  as  with  wild  oats,  or  for 
some  other  reason,  are  very  troublesome  to 
the  farmer  and  very  difficult  to  eradicate. 

The  three  most  troublesome  grasses  to 
the  farmers  of  Canada  and  the  northern 
United  States  are  quack  grass,  wild  oats, 
and  foxtail.  Wild  barley  or  squirrel-tail 
grass  is  also  a  very  serious  weed  pest  in 
prairie  pastures  and  meadows,  but  one 
which  rather  quickly  succumbs  to  cultiva- 
tion.    On   land  that  cannot  be  cultivated, 


176  IVccds. 

cutting  before  the  seed  ripens  will  be  effect- 
ive in  preventing  its  spread.  Nearly  all 
the  other  weedy  grasses  quite  closely  resem- 
ble some  one  of  the  three  mentioned  in  the 
beginning  of  this  paragraph,  and  may  be 
eradicated  by  using  the  methods  recom- 
mended for  the  one  they  most  nearly 
approach  in  their  habits  of  growth. 

(l)    QUACK   GRASS. 

Quack  grass  (Agropyron  repens)  is 
known  by  a  great  variety  of  names,  as  quack 
grass,  scutch  grass,  quick  grass,  quitch 
grass,  and  dog  grass;  but  it  is  generally 
called  either  quack  or  couch  grass.  Quack 
grass  is  a  creepmg  perennial,  the  root-stocks 
of  which  are  so  numerous  that  they  soon  fill 
the  soil.  They  resemble  considerably  the 
roots  of  Canadian  blue  grass  {Poa  com- 
pressa),  but  they  are  much  larger  and 
stronger  and  more  vigorous  in  every  way, 
and  they  are  very  much  more  tenacious  of 
life.  The  root-stocks  of  quack  grass  are  so 
strong  and  unyielding  that  they  have  been 
known  to  push  their  way  through  tlie  tuber 
of  the  potato.  The  stems  grow  to  the  height 
of  one  to  three  feet,  according  to  soil  and 
season,  and  each  of  them  is  terminated  bv 


Description   of  Quack   Gross.       177 

a  slender  spike  from  two  to  several  inches 
in   length.     The  leaves  bear   much  resem- 


QUACK  GRASS 

blance  to  those  of  timothy,  but  are  some- 
what larger,  and  are  characterized  by  a 
deeper  shade  of  green. 


178  Weeds. 

Quack  grass  makes  a  good  growth  early 
in  the  season.  Its  seeds  usually  mature  in 
August,  about  the  same  time  as  those  of 
timothy.  It  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind 
of  soil,  but  is  most  partial  to  loams  and 
soils  of  a  decidedly  open  texture.  It  is 
least  at  home  in  stifif  clays,  and  in  these  it 
is  much  more  easily  destroyed  than  else- 
where. 

Quack  grass  grows  in  all  kinds  of  crops 
from  early  spring  until  late  autumn,  and 
during  this  entire  period  the  work  of  prop- 
agation goes  constantly  on  by  means  of  its 
creeping  root-stocks.  When  once  it  gets  a 
footing,  its  power  of  crowding  out  other 
crops  is  very  great.  Like  the  Canada  this- 
tle and  the  perennial  sow  thistle,  quack 
grass  also  is  easily  distributed  by  means  of 
the  seeds  of  the  useful  grains  and  grasses, 
for  its  seeds  ripen  at  the  same  time  as  those 
of  the  cereals,  and  those  of  some  of  the 
clovers,  as  for  example  alsike  and  mam- 
moth, and  those  of  timothy.  It  is  also  dis- 
tributed through  the  agency  of  farmyard 
manure,   both   home-made   and   purchased. 

Quack  grass  has  some  redeeming  quali- 
ties. It  furnishes  a  considerable  amount 
of  food  of  a  nutritious  character,  both  as 


Eradication  of  Quack   Grass.       179 

pasture  and  as  hay,  and  when  cut  as  hay  it 
affords  a  considerable  aftermath.  It  is  so 
hardy  that  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  heat 
of  summer  cannot  destroy  it.  Hence  it 
has  been  deliberately  bought  and  sowed 
to  provide  permanent  pasture,  but  after  a 
few  years  its  roots  become  so  matted  that 
the  plants  fail  to  produce  a  vigorous 
growth.  When  this  is  so,  the  pasture  may 
easily  be  renovated  by  simply  plowing  it, 
and  leveling  it  down  again  with  the  har- 
row. Quack  grass,  however,  is  generally 
looked  upon  as  a  great  pest,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  rid  of  it  when  its 
absence  is  desired,  and  this  view  is  doubt- 
less the  correct  one  to  take  of  it. 

Other  weedy  grasses  which  resemble 
quack  grass  more  or  less  closely  and  are 
sometimes  mistaken  for  it  include  vanilla 
grass  or  holy  grass,  western  wheat  grass, 
and  dropseed  grass.  All  of  these  grasses 
may  be  eradicated  by  the  methods  recom- 
mended below  for  the  eradication  of  quack 
grass. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

When  the  attempt  is  made  to  destroy 
quack  grass,  effective  work  should  be  made 
of  it,  and  this  in  a  single  season.     The  fol- 


i8o  Weeds. 

lowing  modes  of  dealing  with  it  will  be 
found  successful,  except  in  season  of  unu- 
sually   heavy    rainfall. 

/.  After-harvest  and  autumn  cultivation, 
folloivcd  by  spring  cultivation  and  a  cul- 
tivated crop.  After  harvest,  plow  the 
infested  fields  lightly,  and  then  harrow  with 
the  ordinary  harrow — if  necessary,  using 
also  the  spring-tooth  cultivator  to  shake 
the  roots  of  the  grass  free  from  the  soil. 
Then  draw  the  roots  into  light  windrows 
with  the  horse  rake,  and,  when  they  are 
dry  enough,  burn  them.  If  the  weather 
should  not  be  dry  enough  for  burning 
them,  the  root-stocks  may  be  carted  into 
a  compost  heap.  Repeat  the  operation  a 
second  time  and  even  a  third  time  the  same 
autumn  if  the  weather  will  admit  of  it, 
plowing  the  ground  more  deeply  eacli  time 
in  order  to  bring  up  fresh  root-stocks.  In 
no  case,  however,  should  the  disturbing 
work  go  on  in  wet  weather.  When  the 
late  autumn  arrives,  rib  the  land  by  turn- 
ing two  furrows  together  from  opposite 
directions,  or  plow  the  land  so  that  the 
largest  possible  amount  of  surface  shall  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  frost  in  win- 
ter.    The  frost  has  the  effect   (i)   of  kill- 


Eradication  of  Quack   Grass.       i8i 

ing  the  roots  that  are  exposed  by  tlie  plow- 
ing, and  (2)  of  freeing  them  from  the  soil. 
In  the  spring  use  the  harrow  and  culti- 
vator occasionally  in  time  of  dry  weather, 
and  the  horse  rake  also  if  necessary,  until 
it  is  time  to  plant  corn,  roots,  or  some  other 
cultivated  crop.  Then  cultivate  this  crop 
properly,  giving  it  such  hand  work  as  may 
be  deemed  necessary  along  the  line  of  the 
rows. 

2.  Plozif  tinder  deeply  after  the  grass  has 
been  cut  for  hay.  Allow  the  grass  to  grow 
until  near  the  blossoming  stage.  Then 
mow  it  for  hay.  Then  plow  the  land 
deeply,  not  less  than  8  or  9  inches,  and  if 
it  can  be  plowed  to  a  greater  depth  the 
results  will  be  even  more  satisfactory.  The 
plowing  should  be  done  with  much  care  so 
that  all  the  grass  is  deeply  buried.  The 
disk  should  then  be  run  over  the  land  every 
seven  to  fourteen  days  subsequently  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  In  a  dry  season 
this  method  will  prove  very  effective. 

J.  Grozv  tzvo  crops  of  corn  in  succession. 
Grow  two  crops  of  corn  in  succession, 
planting  the  corn  so  that  it  can  be  culti- 
vated both  ways.  The  cultivation  should 
be  so  thorough  that  the  quack  grass  will  be 


i82  Weeds. 

all  destroyed  between  the  rows  of  corn. 
The  following  season  run  the  disk  over  the 
land  quite  frequently  until  the  middle  of 
June.  Then  sow  millet  at  the  rate  of  one 
bushel  of  seed  per  acre.  The  growth  of 
millet  thus  secured  should  smother  any 
plants  of  the  quack  grass  that  may  have 
survived. 

Observations.  If  the  first  method  out- 
lined is  thoroughly  followed  out,  then  by 
autumn  the  quack  grass  will  be  completely 
destroyed.  An  infested  field  was  very 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  this  method  in  one 
season  at  the  Ontario  Experiment  Station 
farm  at  Guelph  in  1891,  the  cultivated  crop 
used  being  corn.  It  should  be  remarked 
that  more  constant  and  careful  cultivation 
was  given  to  this  crop  than  a  corn  crop 
usually  receives,  and  this  is  true  in  respect 
to  both  the  horse  labor  and  the  hand  labor. 
In  a  wet  season,  however,  it  would  scarcely 
be  possible  to  eradicate  quack  grass  with- 
out an  expenditure  of  labor  too  costly  for 
such  a  result.  Indeed,  quack  grass  should 
never  be  disturbed  when  the  ground  is  wet, 
for  at  such  a  time  the  growth  of  the  grass 
would  in  some  respects  be  encouraged  by 
stirring  the  soil. 


Description  of  the  Wild  Oat.       183 

In  fence  borders  it  will  usually  be  found 
"very  difficult  to  dislodge  quack-grass  with- 
out first  removing  the  fence  for  a  time, 
and  then  cleaning  the  ground  as  described 
above.  However,  another  mode  would  be 
to  smother  the  weed  by  piling  litter  or 
manure  upon  it,  but  this  mode  would  only 
be  applicable  in  the  case  of  small  patches. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  weed 
should  be  destroyed  in  such  places,  other- 
wise it  will  be  continually  pushing  itself 
out  into  the  field  and  giving  trouble. 

(2)    THE  WILD  OAT. 

The  wild  oat  (Avena  fatua)  is  an  annual 
grass  that  is  one  of  our  most  pernicious  and 
troublesome  weeds.  In  fact,  the  attention 
has  never  been  given  to  this  pest  that  its 
banefulness  merits,  but  we  would  advise  all 
farmers  to  spare  no  pains  to  exterminate  it 
utterly  from  their  land.  The  wild  oat  will 
grow  readily  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  but  it  makes  its  most  vigorous  growth 
in  the  warm,  moist  weather  of  spring, 
though  not  in  early  spring.  It  bears  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  common  oat, 
but  there  are  some  distinctive  points  of  dif- 
ference.    In  the  wild  oat  the  chaff  scales 


i84 


Weeds. 


which  adhere  to  the  grain  are  thick  and 
hairy,  while ^in  the  cultivated  varieties  these 
scales  are  not  so  coarse  and  are  hairless. 
The  wild  oat  has  a  long,  stiff  awn,  which 


WILD  OATS. 


is  usually  twisted  near  its  base ;  in  the  cul- 
tivated varieties,  the  awn  is  either  entirely 
wanting  or,  if  present,  is  not  so  stiff,  and 
is  seldom  bent.    When  the  awn  of  the  wild 


Description  of  the  Wild  Oat.       185 

oat  is  dry,  it  is  generally  twisted  closely 
upon  itself,  but  when  it  is  moistened  by 
dew  or  rain,  it  slowly  uncoils.  This  uncoil- 
ing of  the  twisted  awn  causes  the  seed  to 
sprawl  and  spring  about  upon  the  ground, 
and  is  a  means  of  forcing  the  seed  into  the 
ground  in  damp  weather.  The  grain  of  the 
wild  oat  is  light,  being  composed  chiefly  of 
hull,  and  it  is  therefore  of  but  little  value 
as  a  feed. 

The  resemblance  of  the  wild  oat  to  other 
cereals  before  heading  is  so  close  that  when 
it  grows  along  with  them  it  is  impossible 
to  detect  its  presence  without  very  careful 
scrutiny.  It  matures  its  seeds  earlier  than 
nearly  all  the  varieties  of  the  useful  cereals, 
but  of  course  not  so  much  so  in  the  case  of 
fall  wheat  as  of  the. spring  cereals;  hence 
it  is  especially  troublesome  in  the  localities 
where  cereal  crops  are  much  grown.  It  is 
very  troublesome,  too,  from  the  fact  that  it 
begins  to  shed  its  seeds  upon  the  ground 
as  soon  as  ripe,  and  the  operation  of  har- 
vesting the  crops  amid  which  it  grows 
greatly  helps  it  to  shed  its  seeds.  It  is  a 
very  hardy  plant,  and  will  endure  adverse 
conditions  of  soil  and  weather  in  a  remark- 
able degree,  but  its  seeds  will  not  germinate 


1 86  Weeds. 

very  early  in  the  spring,  nor  in  the  autumn, 
unless  the  weather  be  warm  and  moist.  It 
luxuriates  in  soils  that  are  well  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  cereals,  but  it  will  also  grow 
in  various  other  soils.  The  wild  oat  does 
not  give  serious  trouble  in  meadows  or  pas- 
tures. Its  seeds  are  possessed  of  great 
vitality,  and  will  spring  into  life  when 
brought  under  suitable  conditions,  although 
they  may  have  been  buried  in  the  ground 
or  in  unrotted  manure  for  years  and  years. 
The  wild  oat  is  distributed  most  freely 
by  means  of  the  seeds  of  the  small  grains, 
for  the  reason  that,  if  left  to  grow  among 
these  crops,  it  is  sure  to  ripen  before  them, 
and  therefore  to  have  a  portion  of  its  seed 
mixed  with  the  thrashed  grain.  It  is  also 
very  largely  distributed  by  manure,  since 
its  seed  is  so  light  tliat  there  is  no  means  of 
preventing  it  from  being  very  freely  mixed 
with  the  straw  of  the  crops  amid  which  it 
has  grown.  When  once  among  the  straw  of 
the  manure  heap,  its  seeds  will  maintain 
their  vitality  for  years,  unless  the  utmost 
pains  be  taken  to  thoroughly  rot  the  manure, 
which  should  always  be  done  before  the 
manure  is  placed  on  the  land  if  wild  oat 
seeds  are  suspected  of  being  present  in  it. 


Eradication  of  the  Wild  Oat.        187 

The  watercourses  also  carry  down  the  seeds 
of  wild  oats  from  higher  levels,  and  some 
seeds  are  brought  into  new  localities  by 
thrashing  machines.  On  the  farm  it  is  also 
further  distributed  by  being  carried  in  the 
droppings  of  animals. 

DarneL  and  cheat  are  annual  weedy 
grasses  which  give  much  trouble  in  some 
sections.  They  can  be  eradicated  by  the 
means  here  recommended  for  the  wild  oat. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  wild  oats: 

/.  After-harvest  and  autumn  cultivation, 
follozved  by  a  cultivated  crop.  In  fields 
which  have  borne  grain  crops,  plow  the 
land  just  as  soon  as  this  can  be  done,  start- 
ing the  process  even  before  the  shocks  of 
grain  have  been  removed  from  the  fields — 
the  reason  for  this  early  plowing  being  that 
many  of  the  wild  oat  seeds  which  have  been 
recently  shed  upon  the  ground  may  at  this 
time  be  induced  to  germinate,  whereas  they 
coujd  not  easily  be  induced  to  germinate 
later  on.  Plow  a  second  tirne,  and  then 
cultivate  or  harrow  the  land  occasionally, 


1 88  Weeds. 

until  the  time  of  late  plowing  in  the  fall. 
Other  wild  oat  seeds  lying  in  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  soil  may  thus  be  encouraged  to 
germinate.  It  will  be  an  additional  encour- 
agement if  the  land  be  rolled  once  or  twice 
during  the  process,  especially  if  the  season 
be  dry,  for  the  rolling  tends  to  retain  the 
moisture  of  tlie  soil,  and  when  the  soil  is 
not  moist  the  oats  do  not  germinate  readily. 
In  any  case,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
they  do  not  germinate  so  readily  in  the 
autumn  as  in  the  warm  and  moist  days  of 
spring.  When  the  late  autumn  has  come, 
plow  deeply,  so  that  the  lower  section  of 
the  cultivated  portion  of  the  soil  will  be 
brought  to  the  surface.  Then  in  the  spring- 
stir  the  surface  soil  occasionally  until  it  is 
time  to  plant  corn  or  some  other  cultivated 
crop. 

2.  Grozving  tzvo  cultivated  crops.  Grow 
two  cultivated  crops  in  succession  on  the 
land,  giving  careful  attention  to  the  previ- 
ous autumn  cultivation  and  to  the  subse- 
quent preparation  of  the  soil  for  seed,  and 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  crops  while  they 
are  growing. 

J.  Encourage  germination,  kill  the  young 
plants,  and  sozv  a  late  crop.    Allow  the  wild 


Eradication  of  the  Wild  Oat.       189 

oats  to  start  in  the  early  spring.  Then  plow 
the  land  in  order  to  bury  the  myriads  of 
oats  that  have,  germinated.  The  ground 
should  be  at  once  harrowed  to  encourage 
the  germination  of  the  oats  in  the  upper 
section  of  the  soil.  When  another  crop 
has  started  the  disk  should  again  be  run 
over  the  land.  It  should  then  be  sown  to 
millet  or  barley  during  the  first  half  of 
June.  These  crops  should  be  cut  before  any 
stray  wild  oats  that  may  have  survived 
have  produced  seed.  The  ground  should 
then  be  at  once  plowed  again  to  bring  up 
the  lower  section  of  the  furrow  slice,  which 
will  contain  seeds.  The  next  year  the  same 
process  should  be  followed.  But  few  wild 
oats  will  then  remain  in  the  soil.  If  a  cul- 
tivated crop,  as  corn,  follows,  the  wild  oats 
should  be  all  destroyed. 

4.  Seed  the  land  to  alfalfa.  One  of  the 
most  effective  ways  to  eradicate  wild  oats 
is  to  seed  the  land  to  alfalfa.  The  fre- 
quency of  the  cutting  of  the  alfalfa  crop 
will  prevent  any  of  tlie  oats  from  maturing 
seed.  If  the  alfalfa  is  harvested  for  sev- 
eral successive  years,  the  seeds  of  the  wild 
oats  remaining  in  the  soil  will  lose  their 
germinating  power.     The  two  methods  last 


190  Weeds. 

submitted  are  specially  applicable  to  north- 
western conditions. 

Observations.  ( i )  In  all  districts  infested 
with  wild  oats,  darnel,  or  cheat,  the  great- 
est care  should  be  taken  to  get  pure  seed 
for  sowing,  especially  of  spring  oats,  wheat, 
and  barley,  for  these  weedy  grasses  will  in 
many  cases  ripen  earlier  than  any  of  these. 
(2)  If  these  weeds  exist  on  any  farm,  their 
seeds,  owing  to  their  lightness,  are  sure  to 
get, mixed  with  the  straw  of  the  thrashed 
grain,  and  thus  get  into  the  manure.  Owing 
to  the  remarkable  vitality  of  the  seed  of 
wild  oats,  whenever  there  is  a  suspicion  that 
the  manure  contains  wild  oat  seed  it  is  par- 
ticularly essential  that  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly rotted  before  being  used.  (3) 
Owing  to  its  reluctance  to  germinate  in  the 
fall,  autumn  cultivation  does  not  do  as 
much  for  the  eradication  of  this  weed  as 
for  many  others.  The  greatest  pains,  there- 
fore, must  be  taken  to  induce  its  seeds  to 
germinate  by  the  earliest  possible  cultiva- 
tion after  harvest.  As  its  seeds  will  not  ger- 
minate in  autumn  unless  the  weather  is 
warm  and  moist,  the  wild  oat  is  very  hard 
to  deal  with  in  the  American  and  Canadian 
Northwest,    where'  the    autumn    days    are 


Description  of  Foxtail.  191 

never  warm  enough  to  secure  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seeds.  The  soil  there  is  so  suit- 
able to  the  weed  that  it  grows  w^ith  great 
vigor,  even  to  a  height  of  six  feet. 

(3)    FOXTAIL. 

Foxtail  {Setaria  glaiica)  is  better  known 
in  the  Northwestern  states  as  summer  grass 
or  pigeon  grass.  It  grows  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  nearly  every  section  of  the 
continent  where  the  land  has  been  tilled, 
even  if  only  for  a  few  years.  It  gives  great 
trouble  in  prairie  countries  where  one  kind 
of  cereal  is  frequently  grown  for  many 
years  in  succession  on  the  same  lands.  It 
is  also  troublesome  in  all  crops  in  the  corn 
belt,  particularly  in  Iowa  and  the  adjoining 
states.  Green  foxtail  {Setaria  viridis)  is 
a  closely  related  species  which  is  more 
common  in  the  East*  Practically  the  sam.e 
description  applies  to  it,  and  the  same 
methods  of  treatment  are  applicable.  Fox- 
tail usually  grows  to  the  height  of  about 
one  foot  when  matured,  although  the 
height  varies  much  with  the  richness  of  .the 
soil.  It  is  capable  of  maturing  seeds  even 
when  but  a  few  inches  high.  The  leaves 
bear  a  very  close  resemblance  to  those  of 


192  Weeds. 

millet,  but  they  are  much  smaller.  The 
head  is  covered  with  fine,  soft  hairs,  and  it 
produces  many  seeds. 

Foxtail  commences  to  grow  as  soon  as 
the  soil  gets  warm,  and  the  seeds,  which 
have  great  vitality,  will  germinate  under 
favorable  conditions  until  the  arrival  of 
cold  weather  in  autumn.  After  the  cul- 
tivation has  ceased  in  corn,  potatoes,  and 
similar  crops,  the  seeds  which  lie  in  the 
soil  will  grow  when  it  is  sufficiently  moist. 
The  plants  produced  under  these  condi- 
tions grow  very  rapidly  and  mature  seeds 
in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 

Foxtail  will  grow  on  almost  every  class 
of  soils,  but  on  rich  prairie  soils  it  luxu- 
riates. It  infests  almost  every  form  of 
crop  grown,  but  does  not  give  much  trouble 
in  rye,  winter  wheat,  or  on  cultivated 
meadow,  owing  to  the  early  period  at 
which  these  crops  mature.  It  is  spe- 
cially troublesome  in  cereals  sown  in  the 
spring,  as  in  these  the  plants  frequently 
grow  in  such  numbers  as  to  greatly  hinder 
the  growth  of  the  crops. 

Foxtail  is  distributed  through  the  agency 
of  birds,  wind  and  water,  and  to  a  still 
greater  extent  probably  through  that  of  seed 


Description  of  Foxtail  193 


FOXTAIL 


194  Weeds. 

grain,  manure  and  droppings  of  animals. 

Other  annual  weedy  grasses  which  can 
be  eradicated  by  the  methods  given  below 
include  barnyard  grass,  fingergrass,  and 
crabgrass. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradi- 
cation that  have  been  found  most  success- 
ful in  dealing  with  foxtail : 

1.  Modifying  tJie  rotation.  Increase  the 
acreage  of  rye,  winter  wheat,  cultivated 
grasses  and  permanent  pastures. 

2.  Antunin  cultivation.  Practice  autumn 
cultivation  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 
If  the  fields  which  have  grown  cereals  are 
at  once  ploughed,  as  soon  as  the  grain  is 
removed,  the  maturing  of  many  of  the 
seeds  will  be  prevented,  but  not  of  all  of 
them. 

3.  Grozci]ig  cultivated  crops.  Grow  cul- 
tivated crops  so  far  as  practicable,  more 
especially  crops  of  corn.  In  these  the  cul- 
tivation should  be  continued  as  late  in  the 
season  as  possible. 

4.  Harrozving  the  grain.  Harrow  the 
grain  in  the  spring  with  a  light  harrow, 
with  manv  teeth  in  it,  just  after  the  fox- 


Eradication  of  Foxtail.  195 

tail  plants  have  appeared  in  large  numbers 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This 
should  never  be  attempted  when  the 
ground  or  the  grain  is  wet.  Wlicn  the 
work  of  harrowing  is  judiciously  done  it 
will  also  prove  helpful  to  the  crops  which 
are  thus  dealt  with. 

5,  Pasturing  luith  sheep.  Utilize  sheep 
in  pasturing  off  the  stray  plants  in  pas- 
tures and  in  the  aftermath  of  meadows, 
and  in  eating  off  the  myriads  of  plants 
which  frequently  grow  among  the  stubbles 
of  cereal  crops,  in  corn  crops  and  in  waste- 
places  generally.  A  flock  of  sheep  will 
soon  clean  out  all  the  plants  growing  in  a 
crop  of  corn,  and  without  injury  to  the 
corn,  when  the  sheep  are  turned  in  to  feed 
amid  the  corn  at  the  proper  season. 

Observations.  ( i )  In  fighting  this  weed 
the  aim  should  be  to  give  prominence  to 
those  methods  which  will  most  eft'ectively 
secure  the  quick  germination  of  the  weed 
seeds  in  the  soil.  Until  these  germinate 
they  cannot  be  removed.  (2)  To  get  the 
complete  mastery  of  the  weed  it  will  prob- 
ably be  found  necessary  to  cease  to  grow 
cereals  which  are  sown  in  the  spring  from 
year  to  year  upon  th.e  same  lands. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SPECIFIC     MODES     OF     ERADICATING     MISCEL- 
LANEOUS   TROUBLESOME    WEEDS. 

The  most  important  of  the  weeds  which 
give  trouble  to  the  farmer  in  the  northern 
United  States  which  have  not  been  treated 
in  the  three  preceding  chapters  are  the  Rus- 
sian thistle,  the  plantains,  biiidzveed,  wild 
buckzvheat,  corn  cockle,  wheat-thief,  blue- 
weed  and  wild  carrot.  Tlie  last  three  of 
these  are  most  serious  in  eastern  Canada 
and  the  eastern  United  States.  Wheat- 
tliief  and  the  blueweed  belong  to  the  same 
botanical  family,  as  do  the  Russian  thistle 
and  the  wild  buckwheat.  With  these  excep- 
tions, the  weeds  mentioned  in  this  chapter 
are  not  closely  related. 

(l)    THE    RUSSIAN    THISTLE. 

The  Russian  tliistle  (Salsoli  kali  var. 
tragus)  is  one  of  tiie  most  aggressive  weed 
pests  that  has  ever  come  to  the  prairies  of 
the  west.     It  is  frequently  called  the  Rus- 


Description  of  the  Russian  Thistle.     197 

sian  cactus,  but  strictly  speaking  it  is  neither 
a  thistle  nor  a  cactus. 

This  plant,  it  is  claimed,  first  obtained  a 
foothold  in  the  United  State-s  in  Bonhomme 
county,  South  Dakota,  about  the  year  1873. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  in  flax- 
seed from  the  plains  of  Russia,  where  it 
has  been  growing  increasingly  formidable 
for  at  least  two  centuries.  So  rapid  was 
the  spread  of  the  Russian  thistle  in  the 
United  States  that  it  was  soon  considered 
a  serious  menace  to  successful  agriculture 
in  several  of  the  prairie  states  bordering  on 
the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  It  has 
also  made  its  appearance  in  states  farther 
to  the  east,  but  nowhere  is  it  now  so  seri- 
ously regarded  as  it  was  a  few  years  ago, 
though  it  is  still  a  very  troublesome  weed 
in  the  prairie  sections. 

The  Russian  thistle  is  an  annual.  The 
early  leaves  of  the  young  plants  are  smooth 
and  slender,  about  two  inches  long,  and 
each  is  tipped  with  a  spine.  Above  the 
early  leaves  branches  grow  out  which  pro- 
duce many  spines,  and  the  number  and 
length  of  the  branches  vary  much  with  the 
attendant  conditions  of  growth.  The  spines 
grow  in  clusters  of  three,  and  as  the  plants 


198 


Weeds. 


near  maturity  they  become  so  rigid  that  the 
legs  of  horses  require  protection  when  they 
have  to  travel  among  the  mature  weeds. 
When  near  maturity  the  plant  appears  to 
be  almost  leafless.  Specimens  of  the  plant 
have  been  found  with  a  diameter  not  less 
than  five  feet. 


'^^i 


THE  RUSSIAN  THISTLE 


The  Russian  thistle  does  not  begin  to 
grow  very  early  in  the  season,  hence  if 
grain  crops  are  given  an  early  start  in  the 
spring  the  thistle  which  infests  them  will 


Description  of  the  Russian  Thistle.     199 

be  so  far  kept  in  check  that  it  may  not  seri- 
ously injure  the  crops.  It  frequently  con- 
tinues to  grow  and  mature  seeds  until  the 
frosts  become  severe  enough  to  destroy  its 
vitality.  The  earlier  plants  mature  much 
of  the  seed  in  the  latter  part  of  August 
and  in  September,  hence  all  plants  cut  off 
or  pulled  up  after  that  time  should  be 
burned.  It  is  claimed  that  an  average  sized 
plant  is  capable  of  maturing  from  20,000 
to  30,000  seeds. 

This  weed  is  specially  troublesome  in 
grain  crops ;  the  later  the  crops  and  the 
more  weakly  they  are  the  greater  will  be 
the  injury  done.  It  grows  with  sufficient 
vigor  under  some  conditions  to  prevent  the 
harvesting  of  the  grain  by  the  ordinary 
binder,  and  in  all  cases  on  account  of  its 
bulk  it  makes  harvesting  difficult  and 
expensive.  It  infests  all  kinds  of  crops, 
but  is  easily  destroyed  in  such  as  are  culti- 
vated. This  weed  grows  to  some  extent  on 
the  native  prairie,  but  not  so  much  where 
grasses  are  well  established  in  the  soil,  as 
where  prairie  fires,  gophers  or  prairie  dogs 
have  prepared  a  seed  bed  for  it. 

The  Russian  thistle  is  propagated  solely 
by   means   of   its   seed   and    its   marvelous 


200  Weeds. 

power  of  propagation  is  attributable  to  the 
ease  with  which  the  winds  send  it  tumbhng 
over  the  prairie  for  miles  in  succession,  the 
number  of  seeds  which  it  produces,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  the  seeds  germinate 
under  favorable  conditions.  Railways  are 
largely  responsible  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  seed  to  new  centers.  It  has  also  been 
carried  in  flaxseed  and  in  the  seed  of  cereals. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  Russian  thistle  is  not  difficult  of 
eradication.  Its  great  weakness  lies  in  the 
inability  of  the  seeds  to  maintain  vitality 
under  normal  conditions  for  a  longer 
period  than  two  years.  Under  a  good  sys- 
tem of  farming  it  may  be  eradicated  with- 
out great  difficulty.  Any  system  of  farm- 
ing that  will  prevent  the  plants  from  matur- 
ing their  seeds  for  two  successive  years 
will  accomplish  this  end. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion which  have  been  found  most  success- 
ful in  dealing  with  the  Russian  thistle : 

7.  Modifying  the  rotation.  Cereal  crops 
and  other  crops  which  favor  the  maturing 
of  the  seeds  may  be  omitted  for  two  suc- 
cessive  years,   and   other   crops   grown   in 


Eradication  of  the  Ritssiaji  Thistle.  201 

their  stead,  such  as  cultivated  crops  or  tlie 
tame  grasses. 

2.  Spudding.  When  the  weed  plants 
are  not  numerous  they  may  be  destroyed 
by  cutting  them  off  with  the  spud  below 
the  crown  any  time  before  the  seeds  are 
matured,  but  the  work  will-  be  much  more 
easily  done  at  an  early  rather  than  at  a 
late  stage  of  growth.  Along  fence  bor- 
ders and  in  waste-places  they  may  also  be 
thus  destroyed. 

J.  G voicing  tzi'o  cultivated  crops.  If 
two  cultivated  crops  are  grown  in  succes- 
sion on  the  same  land,  and  if  at  the  same 
time  proper  cultivation  is  given  to  them, 
the  weeds  will  be  all  destroyed. 

4.  Growing  forage  crops  and  pasturing 
them  zuith  sheep.  The  Russian  thistle  may 
be  easily  destroyed  by  growing  certain  for- 
age crops  and  pasturing  them  wnth  sheep 
for  two  years  in  succession.  Winter  rye 
should  be  given  a  prominent  place  among 
these  crops  where  it  can  be  successfully 
grown.  The  rye  may  be  followed  about 
the  end  of  May  with  corn,  sorghum,  millet 
or  rape.  Sheep  seem  to  relish  the  thistles 
when  young  and  tender. 


202  V/eeds, 

5.  Harrow  small  grain  in  the  early 
spring.  Harrow  the  grain  crop  with  a 
light  steel  harrow  as  soon  as  the  blades 
begin  to  show.  The  teeth  should  be  given 
a  backward  slant  sufficient  to  produce  the 
result  sought.  When  the  grain  is  four  or 
five  inches  high,  it  should  be  harrowed  a 
second  time,  and  even  a  third  and  fourtli 
time  under  some  conditions.  This  method 
of  destroying  Russian  thistles  has  special 
adaptation  to  dry  areas  where  the  harrow- 
ing of  the  land  has  also  a  beneficial  influ- 
ence on  the  growth  of  the  crop. 

6.  Aittunin  cnltivation.  Autumn  culti- 
vation will  be  found  very  helpful  in 
destroying  the  Russian  thistle,  and  also  in 
preventing  its  further  increase.  It  is  effica- 
cious in  proportion  to  the  early  date  at 
which  tlie  plowing  is  done. 

7.  Legislative  enactments.  When  vacant 
lands  have  become  infested,  stringent  legis- 
lation is  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds  prop- 
erly in  check. 

(2)    THE    PLANTAIN. 

The  two  most  important  varieties  of  the 
plantain  are  known  as  the  common  plantain 
{Plantago    major)    and    the    buckhorn    or 


Description  of  Plantain  and  Buckhoni.  203 

English   plantain    {Flantago   lanceolata). 

The  common  plantain,  which  seems  to 
follow  everywhere  in  the  wake  of  civiliza- 
tion, is  not  a  very  troublesome  weed.  It 
grows  about  dwellings,  in  paths  where  the 
grass  has  been  much  trodden,  and  in  waste 
places  generally  where  the  soil  is  rich. 
Good  cultivation  in  nearly  all  cases  will 
suffice  to  keep  it  at  bay. 

The  buckhorn  or  rib  grass  is  a  much 
more  troublesome  weed,  and  has  become  a 
source  of  great  annoyance  in  the  many  sec- 
tions of  our  continent  into  which  it  has 
been  introduced  from  Europe.  It  is  a  sim- 
ple perennial.  Its  leaves  are  long,  ribbed, 
hairy,  and  narrowed  at  the  base.  The 
stems  wliich  support  its  seed-spikes  are 
usually  about  a  foot  high,  though  they 
sometimes  attain  a  height  considerably 
greater.  Several  spikes  are  commonly 
borne  by  each  plant.  These  spikes  are  usu- 
ally from  one  to  two  inches  long,  much 
shorter  relatively  than  those  of  the  com- 
mon plantain. 

The  buckhorn  continues  to  grow  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  growing  period 
of  the  year.  If  it  be  cut  off  above  ground, 
as  with  the  scythe,  after  the  spikes  begin 


204 


IVceds. 


to  appear,  other  spikes  will  at  once  com- 
mence to  grow  in  their  place.  Its  effort 
to  produce  seed  is  thus  sustained  until  late 
in  the  season.    It  comes  into  flower  in  June, 


THE  BUCKHORN 


and  seems  capable  under  certain  conditions 
of  maturing  seeds  during  all  the  months 
following  until  cold  weather  is  near. 

The    buckhorn    is    most    troublesome    in 
meadows  and  pastures,  more  especially  in 


Eradication  of  Plantain  and  Buckhorn.  205 

the  latter.  It  also  infests  lanes,  roadsides 
and  waste  places,  but  it  is  not  specially  trou- 
blesome in  tilled  fields,  as  it  does  not  seem 
to  have  much  power  to  withstand  good  cul- 
tivation. Its  favorite  soils  are  those  which 
may  be  termed  sandy  loams,  or  loams  of 
mild  constitution. 

This  weed  is  most  commonly  distributed 
by  means  of  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  clo- 
vers, but  it  is  also  distributed  to  some  extent 
in  the  seeds  of  cereal  grains  which  have  not 
been  carefully  cleaned.  It  is  also  distrib- 
uted in  manure,  and  by  means  of  other 
agencies.  Its  seeds  are  about  the  same  size 
as  those  of  red  clover,  and  are  much  the 
same  in  color.  In  shape  each  seed  is  slightly 
elongated,  and  furrowed  on  one  side. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  the  buckhorn.  They  are 
also  effective  in  killing  the  common  plan- 
tain and  closely  related  plants. 

7.  Breaking  up  nicadozv-land  and  folloiv- 
ing  it  zvith  a  ciiltii'ated  crop.  In  the  case 
of  meadows,  plow  them  just  after  they  have 
been  cut,  and  cultivate  on  the  surface  imtil 


2o6  JVceds. 

the  late  autumn.  Grow  a  cultivated  crop 
the   following  season. 

2.  After-harvest  and  autumn  cultivation, 
follozved  next  season  by  a  soiling  crop,  and 
this  by  a  quick- growing  cultivated  crop. 
In  the  case  of  tilled- fields  that  are  infested. 
])low  just  after  harvest,  and  thereafter  give 
due  attention  to  surface  cultivation.  Next 
season  grow  a  soiling  crop,  and  follow  that 
with  rape,  sorghum,  or  some  other  quick- 
growing  cultivated  crop,  grown  as  described 
in  section  3  of  our  treatment  of  the  Canada 
thistle. 

5.  Using  the  niozver,  or  scythe.  In  places 
where  cultivation  cannot  be  introduced,  per- 
sistently use  the  mower  or  scythe  to  keep 
the  plants  from  maturing  their  seeds,  or, 
if  practicable,  use  the  spud  to  cut  ofif  the 
plants  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

(3)    BINDWEED. 

The  two  common  species  of  bindweed 
{Convolvulus  sepiuni  and  C.  arvensis)  are 
very  similar  creeping  perennials  witli  trail- 
ing habits  of  growtli.  As  they  are  so  simi- 
lar, they  will  be  disc^'sscd  under  tlic  same 
heading.  Bindweed,  or  as  it  is  often  called, 
wild  morning  glory,  usually  grows  to  the 


Description   of  Bindivccd.  207 

length  of  two  to  three  feet,  but  on  some 
soils  it  attains  a  much  greater  length.  This 
weed  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  morn- 
ing-glory.    Its  leaves  are  cordate  or  heart- 


BINDWEED. 


shaped,  and  its  blossoms  are  sometimes 
white,  but  more  commonly  they  are  of  a 
pinkish  white,  which  may  be  tinged  with 
veins  of  blue.    Its  roots  are  larger  than  the 


2o8  Weeds. 

vines.  They  form  a  network  in  the  soil, 
and  also  go  down  deeply  into  it. 

Bindweed  begins  to  grow  usually  in  the 
month  of  May,  and  maintains  its  greenness 
until  the  time  of  early  frost,  although  its 
growth  is  most  vigorous  during  the  early 
months  of  summer.  It  commences  to  blos- 
som early  in  the  season,  and  continues  to 
bloom  for  a  long  time.  Bindweed  grows  in 
various  crops,  but  it  is  most  troublesome  in 
grain  crops;  yet  when  it  is  found  in  hoed 
crops,  it  greatly  adds  to  the  trouble  of  keep- 
ing them  clean.  It  climbs  up  the  stalks  of 
the  grain  amid 'which  it  grows,  and,  after 
twining  around  them,  it  gradually  draws 
them  down  toward  the  ground.  So  com- 
pletely intertwined  antl  entangled  are  the 
vines  within  themselves  that^  they  some- 
times greatly  hinder  the  progress  of  the 
mower  or  binder.  This  weed  will  grow  in 
various  soils,  but  is  most  at  home  in  soils 
which  contain  a  large  amount  of  humus. 

Bindweed  is  generally  distributed  by 
means  of  the  seeds  of  cereal  grains,  but  it 
is  also  carried  from  place  to  place  by  the 
agency  of  water.  In  this  last  fact  lies  one 
explanation  of  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
sometimes   found   in  bottom   lands.     It   is 


Eradication  of  Bindweed.         209 

also  distributed  by  means  of  manure,  and 
in  cultivated  land  it  is  propagated  very 
largely  by  means  of  the  root-stocks  which 
it  so  numerously  possesses. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  bindweed : 

1.  Modifying  the  rotation.  In  the 
infested  fields  drop  grain  crops  out  of  the 
rotation  until  the  fields  have  been  subjected 
to  a  cleaning  process. 

2.  After-harvest  and  autumn  cultivation, 
followed  by  spring  cultivation  and  a  cul- 
tivated crop.  Plow  the  infested  fields 
immediately  after  harvest,  and  cultivate  or 
plow  them  sufficiently  often  thereafter  to 
keep  the  plants  from  breathing  until  the 
period  of  growth  ceases.  The  plowing 
should  be  shallow,  but  at  the  same  time 
thorough.  The  last  plowing,  however, 
should  be  deep,  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the 
next  crop.  In  the  spring  proceed  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  autumn  cultivation ;  that 
is,  keep  constantly  stirring  the  soil  near  the 
surface  until  it  is  time  to  plant  a  cultivated 
crop,   as   corn  or  roots.       Then  give  this 


2IO  Weeds. 

crop  careful  culture  throughout  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  season. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that,  as  this 
weed  is  usually  a  singularly  persistent 
grower,  it  requires  much  labor  and  con- 
stant watchfulness  in  order  to  eradicate  it 
completely  in   one  season. 

J.  CaUing  in  the  aid  of  sheep  or  hogs. 
When  bindweed  grows  in  pastures  and 
waste-places,  its  growth  may  be  checked  by 
allowing  sheep  to  have  access  to  the  places 
where  it  grows,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not 
disinclined  to  feed  upon  this  weed,  especially 
early  in  the  season^  while  yet  the  plant  is 
tender.  Hogs  that  have  not  had  their 
noses  rung  or  slit  to  prevent  rooting  will 
be  a  very  efficient  aid  in  eradicating  bind- 
v/eed,  if  they  are  pastured  on  it  or  turned 
on  to  a  plowed  field  which  contains  the 
roots.  They  dig  up  the  fleshy,  succulent 
roots  and  eat  them   freely. 

(4)     WILD    BUCKW^HEAT. 

Wild  buckwheat  (Polygonum  convol- 
vulus), sometimes  improperly  called  bind- 
weed, is  a  plant  possessed  of  a  creeping, 
and  also  a  twining  and  clinging  habit  of 
growth.       In    some    aspects    it    resembles 


Description  of  Wild  Biickzi'hcat.    211 

bindweed  previously  described,  but  the 
roots  grow  very  differently,  and  there  is 
no  resemblance  between  the  blossoms  or 
the  seeds  of  the  two  plants. 

The  plants  grow  singly,  but  oftentimes 
in  great  numbers.  The  tendrils  spread 
abroad  in  different  directions,  and  cling  to 
the  vegetation  amid  which  the  weeds  grow. 
They  will  then  clamber  up  to  the  very  top 
of  the  stalks  of  matured  grain,  and  will 
oftentimes  cause  it  to  lean  toward  the  earth 
in  consequence  of  their  weight. 

The  seeds  resemble  those  of  cultivated 
buckwheat  both  in  shape  and  color,  but 
they  are  not  quite  so  large.  They  are  pos- 
sessed of  a  considerable  degree  of  vitality. 

Wild  buckwheat  begins  to  grow  almost 
as  soon  as  the  cereal  grains,  and  it  con- 
tinues to  grow  and  mature  seeds  until  the 
time  of  severe  frosts.  In  spring  cereals 
many  of  the  seeds  are  matured  before  the 
grain  can  be  harvested.  It  infests  all  kinds 
of  crops,  but  is  much  more  troublesome  in 
cereals  than  in  other  crops.  It  gives  but 
little  trouble  in  pastures  and  meadows. 

Wild  buckwheat  will  grow  in  various 
soils,  but  it  grows  much  more  vigorously 
in  rich   vegetable   loams  than  in  soil   stiff' 


212 


Weeds. 


and  heavy  or  deficient  in  vegetable  matter. 
It  has  come  to  be  a  grievous  pest  on  prai- 


VVILD   BUCKWHEAT 


rie    soils    in    localities    where    cereals    are 
grown  on  the  same  lands  from  year  to  year. 


Eradication  of  Wild  Buckzvheat.    213 

Wild  buckwheat  is  distributed  by  means 
of  birds,  wind  and  water,  and  to  a  greater 
extent  probably  through  the  agency  of 
manure,  the  droppings  of  cattle  and  the 
seeds  of  cereals. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in   dealing  with  wild  buckwheat : 

1.  Varying  the  rotation.  Vary  the  rota- 
tion so  that  much  greater,  prominence  will 
be  given  for  a  time  to  meadow  and  pas- 
ture and  to  cultivated  crops.  It  may  be 
mentioned  here  that  in  the  judgment  of 
the  writer,  too  little  attention  is  given  to 
the  growth  of  cultivated  crops  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  Northwest.  If  these  were 
more  extensively  grown  and  suitably  cared 
for,  noxious  weeds  would  soon  be  mate- 
rially lessened. 

2.  Grozving  cultivated  crops.  Grow  cul- 
tivated crops  and  clean  them  so  effectively 
that  none  of  the  seeds  of  the  wild  buck- 
wheat plants  will  mature. 

3.  Solving  dean  seed.  Make  sure  that 
only  clean  seed  is  sown,  and  use  special 
care  in  preparing:  the  seed  of  cereals   for 


214  Weeds. 

sowing,    or    in    purchasing    the  same    for 
seed. 

4.  Autumn  cultivation.  Plough  the 
land  immediately  after  harvest  when  pos- 
sible, to  prevent  the  further  maturing  of 
the  seeds. 

5.  Harrowing  cereal  crops.  Draw  a  light 
harrow  possessed  of  many  short  teeth 
over  the  cereal  crops  when  the  plants  of 
the  wild  buckwheat  have  appeared  numer- 
ously above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
When  the  work  is  judiciously  done  it  will 
be  found  very  effective  in  relation  to  the 
labor  expended. 

(5)    CORN   COCKLE. 

The  corn  cockle  (Agrosteniina  githago), 
also  called  purple  cockle  or  pink-flowered 
cockle,  is  a  common  annual  weed  in  wheat 
fields.  It  does  not  commonly  occur  else- 
where, though  it  may  grow  in  other  grain. 
In  the  winter  wheat  district  it  is  a  winter 
annual. 

The  plant  grows  from  one  to  three  feet 
high,  usually  with  few  branches ;  the  leaves 
are  long  and  narrow,  and  the  whole  plant 
is  thickly  covered  with  silky  hairs.  The 
conspicuous  purple  or  pinkish-purple  flow- 


Description  of  Corn  Cockle.       215 


CORN  COCKLE. 


2i6  Weeds. 

ers  are  borne  on  the  ends  of  the  branches ; 
the  calyx,  which  encloses  the  seed  pod, 
becomes  much  swollen  as  the  seed  develops. 
The  plant  blooms  in  June  and  July,  and 
ripens  its  seed  with  the  grain. 

The  rather  large,  somewhat  flattened 
black  seed  occurs  commonly  in  thrashed 
wheat,  where  it  is  easily  recognizable  and 
difficult  to  remove.  This  seed  is  particu- 
larly objectionable  in  wheat,  as  when  it  is 
ground  with  the  grain,  it  gives  the  flour  a 
dark  color  and  unpleasant  taste,  and  is  said 
to  be  unhealthy.  The  seed  is  poisonous  to 
chickens,  hence  screenings  which  contain  it 
should  not  be  fed  to  poultry. 

The  white  cockle  (Lychnis  alba)  and  the 
sticky  cockle  or  night-flowering  catchfly 
(Silene  noctiUora),  the  former  a  white- 
flowered  biennial  and  the  latter  a  sticky, 
hairy  annual  with  yellowish-white  flowers, 
are  closely  related  plants  which  sometimes 
occur  in  grain  fields  and  meadows.  A  short 
rotation,  with  the  rather  frequent  intro- 
duction of  a  thoroughly  cultivated  crop, 
will  keep  both  these  weeds  in  check.  The 
methods  of  eradicating  corn  cockle  are 
equally  effective  in  handling  white  cockle 
and  night-flowering  catchfly. 


Eradication  of  Corn  Cockle.        217 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

1,  Sozu  clean  seed.  The  best  method  of 
preventing  the  growth  of  corn  cockle  in 
grain  fields  is  to  sow  clean  seed.  When  the 
weed  is  once  introduced  it  is  rather  difificult 
to  eliminate  from  wheat  fields  where  the 
crop  is  grown  continuously.  Screening 
will  remove  some  of  the  seeds  from  seed 
grain,  but  as  they  are  nearly  as  large  as  a 
grain  of  wheat,  they  are  difficult  to  elim- 
inate. 

2.  Proper  rotation.  As  corn  cockle  is  an 
annual  weed  which  soon  gives  way  to  thor- 
ough cultivation,  a  system  of  rotation  which 
introduces  a  cultivated  crop  every  two  or 
three  years  will,  if  proper  care  is  used  in 
sowing  clean  seed  grain,  soon  eliminate  it. 

J.  Hand  pulling  or  spudding  the  plants 
which  occur  in  wheat  fields,  if  they  are  not 
too  numerous,  is  the  surest  way  to  check 
the  spread  of  this  weed.  The  conspicuous 
flowers  make  the  plants  easy  to  locate  in 
the  field,  and  as  they  are  readily  removed, 
this  method  is  not  as  slow  or  difficult  as 
might  at  first  appear. 

4.  Harrozving  small  grain  in  the  spring 
when  it  first  appears  above  the  ground,  and 


2i8  Weeds. 

again  when  it  is  about  three  inches  high, 
will  kill  cockle  and  many  other  weeds.  This 
method  is  less  effective  on  winter  grains,  as 
the  cockle  starts  in  the  fall  with  the  grain 
and  many  of  the  plants  are  too  firmly  estab- 
lished by  spring  to  be  removed  by  the 
harrow.  Harrowing  winter  grains  as  soon 
as  growth  starts  in  the  spring  does  kill 
many  small  weeds,  however. 

Observations.  While  this  weed  is  easy 
to  eradicate  if  proper  attention  is  given  to 
the  methods  just  outlined,  it  will  be  found 
to  be  quite  persistent  where  wheat  is  the 
main  crop  and  no  rotation  is  followed,  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  removing  the 
seeds  of  cockle  from  the  seed  grain,  hence 
the  necessity  for  exercising  care  in  pre- 
venting its  introduction  through  seed  grain 
wherever  possible. 

(6)    WHEAT-THIEF. 

Wheat-thief  (Lithospenniim  arvense)  is 
sometimes  known  as  gromwell,  pigeon 
weed,  and  redroot.  It  usually  grows  from 
eight  to  sixteen  inches  high,  but  sometimes 
in  rich  soils  it  becomes  considerably  taller. 
It  is  more  or  less  branched  in  its  habits  of 
growth.     Its  leaves  are  narrow  and  about 


Description  of  ]Vhcat-Tliicf.        219 

an  inch  long,  and  are  noticeable  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  of  a  lighter  tinge  of  green 
than  those  of  the  cereals  and  grasses.  Its 
flowers  are  small,  and  white  or  of  a  pale 
cream   color.      Its   seeds   cluster   along   its 


WHEAT  THIEF. 


stems,  and  are  produced  abundantly.    They 
are  endowed  with  much  vitality. 

Wheat-thief  is  an  annual,  but  like  false 
fiax,  it  usually  comes  up  in  the  fall  of  the 


220  Weeds. 

year  previous  to  that  in  which  it  matures 
its  seeds.  Its  blossoms  appear  during  the 
latter  part  of  May  or  early  in  June,  hence 
its  seeds  ripen  before  our  meadows  are 
ready  for  harvesting,  or  before  our  crops 
of  winter  cereals  can  be  cut.  It  is  so  hardv 
a  plant  that  frosts  do  not  destroy  it.  It 
usually  grows  a  little  in  advance  of  the  crop 
in  which  it  is  found,  hence  its  presence  may 
most  readily  be  detected  just  when  it  is 
coming  into  blossom.  The  lighter  shade 
which  its  leaves  possess  also  enables  it  to 
be  somewhat  easily  distinguished.  It  will 
grow  in  any  kind  of  soil  free  from  stag- 
nant water,  but  is  most  partial  to  sandy 
loams. 

Wheat-thief  is  most  troublesome  in  crops 
which  mature  early,  and  have  been  sown 
the  previous  season,  such  as  winter  wheat, 
rye,  and  meadows.  It  is  also  found  in  pas- 
tures, but  it  seldom  infests  spring  crops 
to  any  considerable  extent,  although  some 
plants  may  survive  the  early  cultivation  nec- 
essary for  the  preparation  of  the  ground 
for  these  crops. 

Wheat-thief  is  most  commonly  distrib- 
uted through  the  agency  of  the  seeds  of  the 
winter  cereals  and  of  the  seeds  of  timothy, 


Eradication  of  Wheat-Thief.       221 

mammoth  clover,  and  alsike  clover.  It  is 
not  carried  in  the  seed  of  common  red  clo- 
ver. It  is  further  distributed  by  the  drop- 
pings of  cattle,  by  the  manure  of  the  farm- 
yard, by  thrashing  machines,  and  by  birds. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  wheat-thief: 

I.  Modifying  the  rotation.  Drop  out  of 
the  rotation  winter  wheat,  winter  rye,  and 
meadow  crops,  but  not  necessarily  pas- 
tures, if  these  are  kept  eaten  bare.  The 
omission  of  these  crops  from  the  rotation 
need  not  continue  for  more  than  two  or 
three  seasons  if  due  attention  be  given  to 
autumn  cultivation,  as  described  in  the  next 
section.  In  respect  to  pastures  that  are 
infested,  it  will  generally  be  sufficient  to 
deal  with  them  by  means  of  hand  pulling. 

p.  Autumn  cultiration.  Give  careful 
attention  to  autumn  cultivation,  for  it  is  in 
the  autumn  that  the  seeds  of  this  weed  ger- 
minate most  freely.  The  first  plowing 
after  harvest  may  be  either  shallow  or  deep, 
as  may  be  desired.  If  the  seeds  of  this 
weed   have   fallen   numerously   during  the 


222  Weeds. 

harvesting  of  the  immediately  preceding 
crop,  cultivating  the  surface  soil  will  be 
preferable  to  plowing  it.  ^ 

Specific  Modes  of  Eradication. 

J.  Grozving  cultivated  crops.  Where  the 
land  is  suitable,  grow  cultivated  crops,  or 
else  grow  rye  and  follow  it  by  a  cultivated 
crop.  Where  cultivated  crops  are  grown 
alone,  give  careful  attention  to  the  autumn 
cultivation    which    precedes    their    sowing. 

4.  Hand  pulling  and  spudding.  Where 
the  weeds  are  not  numerous,  resort  to  hand 
pulling  or  spudding.  This  work,  to  be 
easily  done,  and  to  fully  accomplish  the  end 
intended,  should  be  undertaken  while  the 
plants  are  still  in  bloom. 

Observation.  Whenever  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  sow  to  grass,  then,  as  in  the  case 
of  false  flax,  it  should  only  be  done  with 
such  crops  as  spring  wheat,  barley,  and 
oats. 

(7)      BLUEWEED. 

Blueweed  {Echiuni  vulgare)  is  a  bien- 
nial. It  is  sometimes  known  as  viper's  bug- 
loss,  but  the  more  common  name  for  it  is 
blueweed.      In   the    Southern    States    it    is 


Description  of  Blnezvccd.  223 

sometimes  called  the  Canada  thistle, 
although  it  bears  but  little  resemblance  to 
that  weed.  It  is  most  common  in  Ontario, 
New  York  and  the  states  to  the  southward. 

Blueweed  is  both  upright  and  spreading 
in  its  habits  of  growth,  each'  plant  having 
several  branches  springing  from  a  single 
stock.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  from  one 
to  three  feet,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  soil  which  it  infests.  Its  leaves  are 
rather  large,  and  those  which  grow  near- 
est the  crown  .spread  out  so  that  they  lie 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Both 
leaves  and  stems  are  covered  with  numer- 
ous hairs,  which  stififen  with  the  advanc- 
ing growth  of  the  plant,  which  explains 
why  blueweed  is  not  relished  by  live  stock. 
These  hairs  are  also  far  from  agreeable  to 
the  touch  when  one  tries  to  pull  the  plant. 
Its  flowers  are  large,  and  of  a  deep,  rich 
blue  color,  thus  giving  the  fields  where 
blueweed  grows  a  very  beautiful  appear- 
ance at  the  season  of  the  year  when  it  is  in 
bloom. 

Blueweed  is  a  biennial.  During  the  first 
season  of  its  growth,  it  sends  a  strong  tap 
root  down  deep  into  the  ground,  and  from 
this  several  smaller  roots  branch  off.    Blue- 


224 


Weeds. 


weed  does  not  blossom  in  its  first  year,  but 
in  the  second  year  the  stronger  plants  begin 
to  come  into  bloom  in  the  month  of  June, 
and  the  weaker  ones  later  on,  so  that  the 
period  of  bloom  usually  extends  over  sev- 


eral months. 


The  blooming  season  is  also 


BLUEWEED. 


extended  by  efforts  made  to  eradicate  the 
weed,  for  when  it  is  cut  off  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  as  with  the  scythe,  hori- 
zontal branches  at  once  start  out  from  the 
crown  and  soon  begin  to  bloom  and  bear 
seed.     Some  of  these  newly  formed  hori- 


Description  of  Blnezvccd.  22$ 

zontal  branches  hng  the  ground  so  closely 
that,  when  the  field  is  gone  over  again  with 
the  scythe,  it  is  not  at  all  easy  to  cut  them 
off ;  as  the  same  thing  occurs  with  each  cut- 
ting, as  long  as  the  growing  period  contin- 
ues, and  as  the  weed  is  a  very  prolific  seed 
producer,  and  as  its  seed  is  also  very  tena- 
cious of  life,  it  follows  that  in  places  where 
cultivation  is  impossible,  this  pest  is  not  a 
very  easy  one  to  deal  with. 

Blueweed  grows  in  various  kinds  of  soil, 
but  its  favorite  feeding  grounds  are  those 
soils  which  contain  much  lime.  It  grows 
vigorously  in  gravelly  soils,  even  in  those 
which  are  suitable  for  use  in  road-making, 
hence  we  frequently  find  this  plant  growing 
right  up  to  the  travelled  portions  of  the 
roads. 

As  in  the  case  of  all  or  nearly  all  bien- 
nials blueweed  is  not  very  difficult  to  keep 
out  of  the  cultivated  portions  of  the  farm, 
but  it  is  a  very  different  matter  when  we 
come  to  deal  with  it  in  fence  borders,  in 
permanent  pastures,  on  road  sides,  and  in 
waste  places  generally.  In  all  these  places 
blueweed  soon  finds  a  congenial  home,  from 
which  it  cannot  be  easily  dislodged. 


226  Weeds. 

As  regards  the  distribution  of  blueweed, 
it  is  probable  that  the  wind  is  the  chief 
agency  employed  in  efifecting  its  spread 
from  place  to  place.  The  seeds  of  blue- 
weed  cling  long  to  the  receptacles  in  which 
they  grow,  but  in  winter  or  toward  spring, 
the  wind  shakes  many  of  them  out  of  their 
receptacles  and  drives  them  for  miles  over 
the  encrusted  snows.  This  fact  no  doubt 
will  generally  account  for  the  sudden 
appearance  of  blueweed  in  new  centers, 
where  previously  it  had  not  been  known  to 
exist.  Blueweed  is  also  probably  distrib- 
uted to  some  extent  by  means  of  clover 
seed,  where  careless  methods  of  farming 
allow  it  to  mature  its  seeds  while  growing 
in  meadows. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  blueweed : 

I.  In  cultivated  fields.  Really  good  cul- 
tivation will  keep  blueweed  from  getting 
much  of  a  footing  in  the  cultivated  portions 
of  the  farm.  When  stray  plants  put  in  an 
appearance  in  a  field  that  is  not  desired  to 
be  broken  up  that  same  season,  the  spud  is 


Eradicafion  of  Bluewccd.  22y 

the  most  effective  means  for  removing 
them.  The  spud  should  in  all  cases  be 
made  to  go  below  the  crown,  for  when  the 
plant  is  cut  off  below  the  crown  at  any 
stage  of  its  growth,  it  will  surely  die,  bur, 
not  otherwise. 

2.  In  pcruiancnt  pastures,  ivastc  places, 
lanes,  etc.  In  permanent  pastures,  and  in 
waste  places  generally,  if  the  plant  has  got 
a  strong  foothold  in  them,  it  will  be  found 
that  any  plan  that  will  keep  it  from  matur- 
ing its  seed  will  soon  prove  effective  in 
destroying  it.  Whether  the  spud  or  the 
scythe  be  used  must  be  determined  by  the 
number  of  the  plants  to  be  destroyed,  but 
in  either  case  the  work  will  have  to  be  done 
more  than  once  in  a  season,  and  also  for 
several  seasons.  It  will  have  to  be  done 
more  than  once  in  a  season  because,  when 
cut  with  a  scythe,  the  plants  at  once  spring 
up  again  and  begin  to  blossom.  When  the 
spud  is  used,  some  weaker  ones  are  certain 
to  be  overlooked  in  the  first  cutting,  but 
these  also  will  blossom  and  bear  seed  later 
on.  The  scythe  or  the  spud  will  have  to  be 
used  for  several  seasons,  inasmuch  as  the 
seeds^ying  in  the  soil,  being  possessed  of 


228  Weeds. 

considerable  vitality,  will  continue  to  germ- 
inate for  years. 

Observations.  When  fields  containing 
blueweed  are  pastured  closely  early  in  the 
season,  the  production  of  the  seeds  will  be 
very  much  hindered.  This  metliod  will  not 
alone  be  sufficient  to  eradicate  the  weed, 
however,  for  some  of  the  plants  will  be  sure 
to  ripen  their  seeds  unless  some  other 
method  of  eradication  be  employed. 

(8)    THE   W^ILD   CARROT.- 

The  wild  carrot  {Daucits  carota)  is  a 
biennial.  It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to 
the  cultivated  variety,  more  especially  in 
the  portions  above  ground.  It  has  a  tap 
root,  which  is  more  or  less  branched. 

The  wild  carrot  comes  up  early  in  the 
season.  It  sends  up  long  flower  stems, 
which  terminate  in  an  umbel  or  flower  clus- 
ter. It  thus  produces  seeds  very  numer- 
ously, and  when  cut  off  by  the  scythe  or 
otherwise  it  sends  up  other  stems,  and  this 
continues  to  put  forth  the  effort  to  produce 
seeds  until  late  in  the  season.  Owing  to  its 
acrid  juices,  live  stock  do  not  care  to  feed 
upon  it. 


Description  of  the  Wild  Carrot.     22g 

The  wild  carrot  is  not  greatly  trouble- 
some to  crops  where  the  usual  cultivation 
is  good.  Like  blueweed,  it  is  more  com- 
monly found  in  pastures,  along  roads  and 
railroads,  and  in  waste  places  generally, 
and  to  a  less  extent  in  meadows.    It  grows 


THE  WILD   CARROT. 

most  readily  in  vegetable  soils,  but  it  also 
flourishes  in  mild  loams. 

The  wild  carrot  is  brought  to  new  centers 
through  the  agency  of  railways,  and  to 
some  extent  bv   birds.     Wind   and   water. 


230  Weeds. 

however,  are  the  great  agencies  for  carry- 
ing and  scattering  its  seeds. 

Modes  of  Eradication. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  eradica- 
tion that  have  been  found  most  successful 
in  dealing  with  the  wild  carrot : 

/.  In  cultivated  fields.  Give  the  arable 
portions  of  the  farm  good  cultivation.  If 
this  be  done,  the  wild  carrot  will  soon  cease 
to  appear  in  them. 

2.  In  permanent  pastures,  lanes,  zvasfe 
places,  etc.  In  pastures  and  waste  places 
keep  the  plants  cut  down  during  the  second 
year  of  their  growth,  cutting  them  off- with 
the  scythe  as  often  as  they  attempt  to 
mature  their  seeds.  If  this  be  done  thor- 
oughly, at  the  end  of  two  years  all  the 
plants  will  be  destroyed. 

J.  Using  the  spud.  Where  the  plants 
are  not  too  numerous,  they  may  be  destroy- 
ed with  the  spud  by  cutting  them  off  below 
the  crown  at  any  stage  of  their  growth. 


Library 
C,  State  College 


INDEX 


Agencies  of  weed  distribution,  40;  not  under 
control,  55;  partially  under  control,  56: 
wholly  under  control,  56. 

Alfalfa  as  aid  in  eradication,   SO. 

Animals,  farm,  distribution  by,  43;  wild,  51. 

Annuals,  62;  winter,  62. 

Autumn    cultivation,    90. 

Bare  fallow,  use  in  weed  eradication,  107;  objec- 
tions to,  109. 

Biennial  weeds,  64. 

Bindweed,  description  of,  206;    eradication  of,  209. 

Birds,  distribution  by,  50. 

Blueweed,  description  o£,  222;    eradication  of,  226. 

Buckhorn,  description  of,  203;    eradication  of,  205. 

Buckwheat,    wild,    description    of,    210;  dica- 

tion  of,   213. 

Bugloss,  viper's,   222. 

Burdock,  description  of,  133;    eradication  of,  136. 

Canada  thistle,  description  of,  115;  eradication 
of,  118. 

Carrot,  wild.   228. 

Catchflj^  night-tlowering-,  216. 

Cheat,  eradication  of,  187. 

Classes  of  weeds,  62;  annuals,  62;  biennials,  64; 
perennials,  66. 

Cleaning  farm  of  weeds,  method  of.  98. 

Cleaning  seed  grain,  16. 

Cleanliness,  maintenance  of,  96;  cost  of  main- 
tenance, 33. 

Clean  seed,  use  of,  74. 

Clover,  aid  in  eradication  of  weeds,  80;  seed  as 
factor  in  distribution,  41. 

Cockle,  214;  corn,  description  of,  214;  eradica- 
tion of.  217;    sticky,  216;    white,  216. 


232  Index. 


Constant  use  of  land,  87. 

Control  of  weeds,  31. 

Copper  sulphate,  use  in  spraying,  158. 

Corn  cockle,  description  of,  214;  eradication  of, 
217. 

Cost   of  weed  eradication,    28;    in  pastures,    123. 

Cost  of  crop  production^  increased  by  weeds,  37. 

Cost  of  maintaining  clean  fields,  33,  101. 

Couch  grass,  176. 

Creeping  perennials,  66. 

Cultivation,  autumn,  as  method  of  eradication.  90. 

Cultivated  crops  as  means  of  eradication,  78. 

Daisy,  ox-ey^,  eradication  of,  127. 

Darnel,  eradication  of,  187. 

Distribution  of  weeds,  40;  by  animals,  43,  51;  by 
birds,  50;  by  clover  seed,  41;  control  of 
agencies  of,  55;  by  farm  animals,  43;  by 
farm  implements,  48;  by  feed-stuffs,  44;  by 
floods,  51;  by  grain,  41;  by  grain  screen- 
ings, 77;  by  grass  seed,  41;  by  live  stock, 
43;  by  manure,  45;  by  packing  material^  46; 
by  railways,  50;  by  root-stocks,  54;  by 
thrashing  machines,  49;  by  tillage,  48;  by 
vehicles,  47;  by  water,  51;  by  wild  animals, 
51;    by  winds,  52. 

Dropseed  gras^   179. 

Eradication  of  weeds,  58;  abundant  crop  pro- 
duction an  aid  in,  88;  use  of  alfalfa  in,  SO; 
use  of  annual  pasture  crops  in,  93;  by  au- 
tumn cultivation,  90;  by  use  of  bare  fallow, 
107;  by  use  of  clean  seed,  74;  by  use  of 
clover,  80;  by  constant  use  of  land,  87:  cost 
of,  26,  29,  122;  by  use  of  cultivated  crops, 
78;  by  destruction  of  screenings  and  chaff, 
77;  by  home  production  of  feeds,  85;  by 
modifying  rotation,  71;  necessity  for 
thorough  work  in,  95;  possibility  of,  21;  by 
prevention  of  seeding,  91;    by  pasturing  with 


Index.  233 

sheep,  84;  by  study  of  habits  of  growth,  62; 
by  use  of  soiling  crops,  82;   by  spraying,  156. 

Fallow,  use  in  weed  eradication,  107;  objections 
to,  109. 

False  flax,  description  of,  165;   eradication  of,  151. 

Farm  animals,  distribution  by,  43. 

Farm  implements,  distribution  by,  48. 

Feeda,  home  production  of,  85. 

Feed  stuffs,  distribution  by,  44. 

Fermentation  of  manure,  111. 

Fertility,  increase  of,  as  means  of  eradication,  88. 

Floods,  distribution  by,  51. 

Food  value  of  weeds,  19. 

Foxtail^   description  of,  191;    eradication  of,   194. 

Freedom  from  weeds,  increase  of  profit  by,  36. 

Frenchweed,  description  of,  168;  eradication  of, 
151. 

Grain,  cleaning  for  seed,  16;  screenings,  dis- 
tribution of  weeds  by,  77;  seed,,  distribution 
by,  41. 

Grass,  couch,  176;  dropseed,  179;  pigeon,  191; 
quack,  176;  scutch,  176;  summer,  191; 
vanilla,.  179;    wheat,  179. 

Grasses,   eradication  of  weedy,  175. 

Grass  family,  weeds  of.  175. 

Grass  seed,  distribution  of  weeds  in,  41. 

Grazing  with  sheep,  eradication  by,  84,  93. 

GromweU,   218. 

Home  production  of  feeds  .as  means  of  eradica- 
tion, 85. 

Implements,  distribution  by,  48. 

Increase  in  farm  profits,  36. 

Injuries  from  presence  of  weeds.  13;  by  crowd- 
ing, 15;  harbor  for  insects,  16;  for  plant  dis- 
eases, 16;  by  increasmg  cost  of  cleaning 
grain,  16;  by  shading,  15;  by  effect  on 
rotation,  18;  by  use  of  moisture,  14;  by  use 
of  plant  food,  14. 


234  Index. 


Insects,  harbored  by  weeds,  16. 

Iron  sulphate,  use  in  spraying,  156.    • 

Kinghead,  description  of,  141;  eradication  of,  146. 

Lettuce,  wild,  137. 

Live  stock,  factor  in  distribution,  43. 

Machinery  for  spraying",  159. 

Machines,  thrashing,  cleaning  before  use,  76; 
distribution   by,,  49. 

Manure,  distribution  by,  45;  fermentation  of.  111. 

Method,  of  cleaning  farm,  98;  of  using  spud,  105. 

Methods,  adapted  to  conditions,  72;  of  eradica- 
tion, general,  58. 

Modification  of  rotation,  71. 

Moisture,  use  of,  by  weeds,  14. 

Morning  glory,  wild,  206. 

Multiplication  of  weeds,  11. 

Mustard,  eradication  o^,  151;  tumbling,  171; 
wild,  161. 

Mustard  family,  weeds  of,  149. 

Night-flowering  catchfly,  216. 

Number  of  weed  species,  9. 

Oat,  wild,  description  of,  183;    eradication  of,  187. 

Ox-eye  daisy,  description  of,  127;  eradication  or, 
130. 

Packing  material,  distribution    by,  46. 

Pastures,  cost  of  eradication  in,  123;  use  of  an- 
nual in  eradication,  93. 

Pennycress,  description  of,  168. 

Peppergrass,  eradication  of,  151. 

Perennials,  66;    creeping,  66. 

Pigeon  grass,  191. 

Pigeon  weed,  218. 

Plantain,  description  of,  202;    eradication  of.  205. 

Plant  diseases,  harbor  for.  16. 

Plant  food,  use  of  by  weed.s,  14. 

Prevalence  of  weeds,  7. 

Prevention  of  seeding,  91. 

Production,  increase  of  cost  of,  37;  prevention  of 
seed,  91. 


Index.  235 

Profits,  increase  by  freedom  from  weeds,  36. 

Purple  cockle,  214. 

Quack  grass,  description  of,  176;  eradication  of, 
179. 

Radisli,  wild,  eradication  o£.  151. 

Ragweed,  description  of,  141;    eradication  of,  146. 

Railways,  distribution  by,  50. 

Redroot,  218. 

Root-stocks,  distribution  by,  54. 

Rotation,  effect  on,  IS;    modifying,  71. 

Russian  thistle,  description  of,  196;  eradication 
of,   200. 

Salt,  use  of,  in  spraying,  156. 

Screenings,  distribution  by,  77. 

Scutcli  grass,  176. 

Seed,  clean,  use  of,  74. 

Seed   grain,   distribution   by,.    41. 

Seed  production,  prevention  of,  91. 

Shading,  injury  to  crops  by,  15. 

Shepherd's  purse,  eradication  of,  f^l. 

Sheep,  use  of  in  weed  eradication,  84;  grazing  off 
annual  crops  with,  93. 

Soiling  crops,   use  in  weed  eradication.  82. 

Sow  thistle,  description  of,  124;  eradicaton  of, 
126. 

Spraying,  as  means  of  eradication,  156;  cost  of, 
160;    machinery,    159;    materials,   loS. 

Spud,  description  of,  104;  method  of  using,  105; 
use  of,  99. 

Spudding,  cost  of,  101. 

Sticky    cockle,    216. 

Stinkweed,    168. 

Summer  grass,  191. 

Thistle,  Canada,  description  of,  115;  eradication 
of,  118;  Russian,  description  of,  196;  eradi- 
cation of,  200;  sow,  description  of,  124; 
eradication  of,  126. 

Thistle  family,  weeds  of,  113. 


236 


Index. 


Thrashing  machines,,  cleaning  before  use,  76; 
distribution  by,   49. 

Tillage,  distribution  by,  48. 

Time  to  spray,  157. 

Tumbling  mustard,  description  of,  171;  eradica- 
tion of,   151. 

Vanilla  grass,  179. 

Vehicles,  distribution   by^,  47. 

Viper's   bugloss,   222. 

Water,  distribution  by,  51. 

Weed.*;,  distribution  of.  40;  eradication  of,  08; 
injuries  from,  13;  multiplication  of,  11;  num- 
ber of  species  of,,   9. 

Wheat  grass,  179. 

Wheat  thief,  description  of,  218;  eradication  of, 
221. 

White   cockle,    216. 

Wild   animals,   distribution   by,  51. 

Wild  buckwheat,  description  of,  210;  eradica- 
tion of.  213. 

Wild  carrot,  description  of,  228;  eradication  of, 
230. 

Wild  flax,  description  of,  165;  eradication  of, 
151. 

Wild  lettuce,  description  of,  137;  eradication  ot 
140. 

Wild  morning  glory,  description  of,  206;  eradi- 
cation of.  209. 

Wild  mustard,  description  of,  161;  eradication  of, 
151. 

Wild  oat,  description  of,  183;    eradication  of,  187. 

Wild   radish,   eradication   of,    151. 

Winds,   distribution   by,  52. 

Winter  annuals,  62. 


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ject of  windbreaks  and  hedges.  Cloth  cover, 
$  .50 ;   paper  cover    $  .25 

THE  HOME  BEAUTIFUL. 

A  book  about  flowers,  both  for  ornamental  and 
commercial  culture.  No  home  is  complete  without 
some  of  Nature's  beauties  and  this  book,  known 
also  as  "The  Gold  Mine  in  the  Front  Yard,"  ex- 
plains the  cultivation,  oise  and  care  of  flowers, 
most  practical  in  farming  communities.  280 
pages,  cloth  bound   $1.00 

GRASSES,  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

The  name  implies  the  character  of  this  book.  Ex- 
plains the  culture  of  all  the  principal  grasses  in 
America.  How  to  make  hay;  temporary  and  per- 
manent pastures,  etc.     453  page  book,  cloth  bound. 

Price    $1.50 

WEEDS,  AND  HOW  TO  ERADICATE  THEM. 

A  fine  edition  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  practical  farmer.  Gives  the  name  and  de- 
scription of  the  most  troublesome  weed  pests  and 
methods  of  destroying  them.  Cloth  cover,  $  .50; 
paper   cover    $  .25 

SWINE  BREEDERS'  MANUAL. 

This  is  practically  a  complete  veterinary  book 
with  500  questions  about  swine  answered.  This 
book  also  treats  on  the  subject  of  diseases  and 
carefully  compares  the  different  breeds  and  touch- 
es   upon    feeding    and     pasturing.     Paper    cover. 

Price    $.25 

FEEDING  AND  IMANAGEMENT  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

A  very  interesting  and  instructive  series  of  lec- 
tures on  the  principles  of  feeding,  breeding,  man- 
agement, and  marketing  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine.  100  pages  of  concrete  facts  that  should 
be  in  the  possession  of  every  man  contemplating 
farming.     Price,  cloth  cover $1.00 

STANDARD      BLACKSMITHING,      HORSESHOEING       AND 
WAGON  MAKING. 

The  latest  and  most  complete  book  on  the  prac- 
tical   work    of    blacksmithing,    describing    how    to 
make  tools  as  well  as  to  use  them.     Cloth  bound    $1.00 
FARM   BLACKSMITHING. 

A  complete  treatise  on  blacksmithing,  written 
particularly  for  amateur  farmers  who  want  a 
work  shop  where  they  can  profitably  spend  stormy 
days.     100    pages,    cloth    bound $.50 


JAN      79 

N.  MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA  46962 


